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Henry  H.  Gibson 


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American 
Forest  Trees 

BY 

HENRY   H.  GIBSON 


Bditbd  bt 

HU    MAXWELL 


Hardwood    Record 

CHICAGO 
1913 


u  =u 


COPTIUGHT    1B13    BT 

lARDWOOD  RECORD 
Chicago,  Iu,. 


PREFACE 


THE  material  on  which  this  volume  is  based,  appeared  in 
Hardwood  Record,  Chicago,  in  a  series  of  articles  beginning  in 
1905  and  ending  in  1913,  and  descriptive  of  the  forest  trees  of  this 
country.  More  than  one  hundred  leading  species  were  included  in  the 
series.  They  constitute  the  principal  sources  of  lumber  for  the  United 
States.  The  present  volume  includes  all  the  species  described  in  the 
series  of  articles,  with  a  large  number  of  less  important  trees  added. 
Every  region  of  the  country  is  represented ;  no  valuable  tree  is  omitted, 
and  the  lists  and  descriptions  are  as  complete  as  they  can  be  made  in 
the  limited  space  of  a  single  volume.  The  ptu-pose  held  steadily  in 
view  has  been  to  make  the  work  practical,  simple,  plain,  and  to  the 
point.  Trees  as  they  grow  in  the  forest,  and  wood  as  it  appears  at 
the  mill  and  factory,  are  described  and  discussed.  Photographs  and 
drawings  of  trunk  and  foliage  are  made  to  tell  as  much  of  the 
story  as  possible.  The  pictures  used  as  illustrations  are  nearly 
all  from  photographs  made  specially  for  that  purpose.  They  are  a 
valuable  contribution  to  tree  knowledge,  because  they  show  forest 
forms  and  conditions,  and  are  as  true  to  nature  as  the  camera  can  make 
them.  Statistics  are  not  given  a  place  in  these  pages,  for  it  is  no  part 
of  the  plan  to  show  the  product  and  the  output  of  the  country's  mills 
and  forests,  but  rather  to  describe  the  source  of  those  products,  the 
trees  themselves.  However,  suggestions  for  utilization  are  offered,  and 
the  fitness  of  the  various  woods  for  many  uses  is  particularly  indicated. 
The  prominent  physical  properties  are  described  in  language  as  free  as 
possible  from  technical  terms,  and  yet  with  painstaking  accuracy  and 
clearness.  Descriptions  intended  to  aid  in  identification  of  trees  are 
given;  but  simplicity  and  clearness  are  held  constantly  in  view,  and 
brevity  is  carefully  studied.  The  different  names  of  commercial  trees 
in  the  various  localities  where  they  are  known,  either  as  standing  timber 
or  as  lumber  in  the  yard  and  factory,  are  included  in  the  descriptions  as 
an  assistance  in  identification.  The  natural  range  of  the  forest  trees, 
and  the  regions  where  they  abound  in  commercial  quantities,  are  outlined 
according  to  the  latest  and  best  authorities.  Estimates  of  present  and 
future  supply  are  offered,  where  such  exist  that  seem  to  be  authoritative. 
The  trees  are  given  the  common  and  the  botanical  names  recognized 
as  official  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  This  lessens  misunder- 
standing and  confusion  in  the  discussion  of  species  whose  common 
names  are  not  the  same  in  different  regions,  and  whose  botanical  names 

3 


Libraf-y 
C.   State    (■-■'^^ 


67122 


4  American  Forest  Trees 

are  not  agreed  upon  among  scientific  men  who  mention  or  describe  them. 
The  forests  of  the  United  States  contain  more  than  five  hundred 
kinds  of  trees,  ranging  in  size  from  the  CaHfornia  sequoias,  which 
attain  diameters  of  twenty  feet  or  more  and  heights  exceeding  two 
hundred,  down  to  indefinite  but  very  small  dimensions.  The  separating 
line  between  trees  and  shrubs  is  not  determined  by  size  alone.  In  a 
general  way,  shrubs  may  be  considered  smaller  than  trees,  but  a  seedling 
tree,  no  matter  how  small,  is  not  properly  called  a  shrub.  It  is  custom- 
ary, not  only  among  botanists,  but  also  among  persons  who  do  not 
usually  recognize  exact  scientific  terms  and  distinctions,  to  apply  the 
name  tree  to  all  woody  plants  which  produce  naturally  in  their  native 
habitat  one  main,  erect  stem,  bearing  a  definite  crown,  no  matter  what 
size  they  may  attain. 

The  commercial  timbers  of  this  country  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
hardwoods  and  softwoods.  The  division  is  for  convenience,  and  is 
sanctioned  by  custom,  but  it  is  hot  based  on  the  actual  hardness  and 
softness  of  the  different  woods.  The  division  has,  however,  a  scientific 
basis  founded  on  the  mechanical  structures  of  the  two  classes  of  woods, 
and  there  is  little  disagreement  among  either  those  who  use  forest 
products  or  manufacture  them,  or  those  who  investigate  the  actual 
structure  of  the  woods  themselves,  as  to  which  belong  in  the  hardwood 
and  which  in  the  softwood  class. 

Softwoods — The  needleleaf  species,  represented  by  pines,  hem- 
locks, firs,  cedars,  cypresses,  spruces,  larches,  sequoias,  and  yews,  are 
softwoods.  The  classification  of  evergreens  as  softwoods  is  erroneous, 
because  all  softwoods  are  not  evergreen,  and  all  evergreens  are  not 
softwoods.  Larches  and  the  southern  cypress  shed  their  leaves  yearly. 
Most  other  softwoods  drop  only  a  portion  of  their  foliage  each  season, 
and  enough  is  always  on  the  branches  to  make  them  evergreen.  Soft- 
woods are  commonly  called  conebearers,  and  that  description  fits  most 
of  them,  but  the  cedars  and  yews  produce  fruit  resembling  berries  rather 
than  cones.  Though  the  needleleaf  species  are  classed  as  softwoods, 
there  is  much  variation  in  the  absolute  hardness  of  the  wood  produced 
by  different  species.  The  white  pines  are  soft,  the  yews  hard,  and  the 
other  species  range  between.  If  there  were  no  other  means  of  separating 
trees  into  classes  than  tests  of  actual  hardness  of  wood,  the  line  dividing 
hardwoods  from  softwoods  might  be  quite  different  from  that  now  so 
universally  recognized  in  this  country. 

Hardwoods — The  broadleaf  trees  are  hardwoods.  Most,  but  not  all, 
shed  their  foliage  yearly.  It  is,  therefore,  incorrect  to  classify  deciduous 
trees  as  hardwoods,  since  it  is  not  true  in  all  cases,  any  more  than  it  is 
true  that  softwoods  are  evergreen.     Live  oaks  and  American  holly  are 


American  Forest  Trees  5 

evergreen,  and  yet  are  true  hardwoods.  In  a  test  of  hardness  they 
stand  near  the  top  of  the  list. 

There  are  more  species  of  hardwoods  than  of  softwoods  in  this 
country;  but  the  actual  quantity  of  softwood  timber  in  the  forests  greatly 
exceeds  the  hardwoods.  Nearly  two  hundred  species  of  the  latter  are 
seldom  or  never  seen  in  a  sawmill,  while  softwoods  are  generally  cut  and 
used  wherever  found  in  accessible  situations. 

As  in  the  case  of  needleleaf  trees,  there  is  much  variation  in  actual 
hardness  of  the  wood  of  different  broadleaf  species.  Some  which  are 
classed  as  hardwoods  are  softer  than  some  in  the  softwood  list.  It  is 
apparent,  therefore,  that  the  terms  hardwood  and  softwood  are  com- 
mercial rather  than  scientific. 

Palm,  cactus,  and  other  trees  of  that  class  are  not  often  employed 
as  lumber,  and  it  is  not  customary  to  speak  of  them  as  either  hardwoods 
or  softwoods. 

Sap-wood  and  Heartwood — Practically  all  mature  trees  contain 
two  qualities  of  wood  known  as  sap  and  heart.  The  inner  portion  is 
the  heartwood,  the  outer  the  sap.  They  are  usually  distinguished  by 
differences  of  color. 

The  terms  are  much  used  in  lumber  transactions  and  are  well 
understood  by  the  trade.  The  two  kinds  of  wood  need  be  described 
only  in  the  most  general  way,  and  for  the  guidance  and  information  of 
those  who  are  not  familiar  with  them.  Differences  are  many  and 
radical  in  the  relative  size  and  appearance  of  the  two  kinds  of  wood  in 
different  species,  and  even  between  different  trees  of  the  same  species. 
No  general  law  is  followed,  except  that  the  heartwood  forms  in  the 
interior  of  the  tree,  and  the  sapwood  in  a  band  outside,  next  to  the  bark. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  young  trees  have  little  heartwood,  often  none. 
It  is  a  development  attendant  on  age,  yet  age  does  not  always  produce  it. 
Some  mature  trees  have  no  heartwood,  others  very  little. 

The  two  kinds  of  wood  belong  to  needleleaf  and  broadleaf  trees 
alike;  but  palms,  owing  to  their  manner  of  growth,  have  neither.  Their 
size  increases  in  height  rather  than  in  diameter.  With  palms,  the  oldest 
wood  is  in  the  base  of  the  trunk,  the  newest  in  the  top ;  but  in  the  ordinary 
timber  tree  the  oldest  wood  is  in  the  center  of  the  trunk,  the  youngest 
in  the  outside  layers  next  the  bark.  It  is  the  oldest  that  becomes  heart- 
wood,  and  it  is,  of  course,  in  the  center  of  the  tree.  The  band  of  sapwood 
is  of  no  certain  thickness,  but  averages  much  thicker  in  some  species 
than  in  others.  The  sapwood  of  Osage  orange  is  scarcely  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  in  loblolly  pine  it  may  be  six  inches  or  more. 

Heartwood  is  known  by  its  color.  The  eye  can  detect  no  other 
difference  between  it  and  the  surrounding  band  of  sapwood.     There  is 


6  American  Forest  Trees 

no  fundamental  difiference.  The  heart  was  once  sap  wood,  and  the  latter 
will  sometime  become  heartwood  if  the  tree  lives  long  enough.  As  the 
trunk  increases  in  size  and  years,  the  wood  near  the  heart  dies.  It  no 
longer  has  much  to  do  with  the  life  of  the  tree,  except  that  it  helps 
support  the  weight  of  the  trunk.  The  heartwood  is,  therefore,  dead- 
wood.  The  activities  of  tree  life  are  no  longer  present.  The  color 
changes,  because  mineral  and  chemical  substances  are  deposited  in  the 
wood  and  fill  many  of  the  cavities.  That  process  begins  at  the  center 
of  the  trunk  and  works  outward  year  by  year,  forming  a  pretty  distinct 
line  between  the  living  sap  wood  and  the  dead  and  inert  heartwood. 

For  some  reason,  the  heartwood  of  certain  species  is  prone  to  decay. 
Sycamore  is  the  best  example.  The  largest  trunks  are  generally  hollow. 
The  heart  has  disappeared,  leaving  only  the  thin  shell  of  sapwood,  and 
this  is  required  not  only  to  maintain  the  tree's  life  and  activities,  but  to 
support  the  trunk's  weight.  In  most  instances  the  substances  deposited 
in  the  heartwood,  and  associated  with  the  coloring  matter,  tend  to 
preserve  the  wood  from  decay.  For  that  reason  heart  timber  lasts 
longer  than  sap  when  exposed  in  damp  situations.  The  dark  and 
variegated  shades  of  the  heartwood  of  some  species  give  them  their 
chief  value  as  cabinet  and  furniture  material.  The  sapwood  of  black 
walnut  is  not  wanted  by  anybody,  for  it  is  light  in  color  and  is  character- 
less; but  when  the  sap  has  changed  to  heart,  and  its  tones  have  been 
deepened  by  the  accumulation  of  pigments,  it  becomes  a  choice  material 
for  certain  purposes.  The  same  is  true  of  many  other  timbers,  notably 
sweet  and  yellow  birch,  black  cherry,  and  several  of  the  oaks. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  when  sapwood  is  transformed  into  heart, 
a  physical  change,  as  well  as  a  coloring  process,  affects  it.  Persimmon 
and  dogwood  are  examples,  and  hickory  in  a  less  degree.  The  sapwood 
of  persimmon  and  dogwood  makes  shuttles  and  golf  heads,  but  after  the 
change  to  heartwood  occurs,  it  is  considered  unsuitable.  Handle 
makers  and  the  manufacturers  of  buggy  spokes  prefer  hickory  sapwood, 
but  use  the  red  heartwood  if  it  is  the  same  weight  as  the  sap. 

Annual  Rings — The  trunks  of  both  hardwoods  and  softwoods  are 
made  up  of  concentric  rings.  In  most  instances  the  eye  easily  detects 
them.  They  are  more  distinct  in  a  freshly  cut  trunk  than  in  weathered 
wood,  though  in  a  few  instances  weathering  accentuates  rather  than 
obliterates  them.  A  count  of  the  rings  gives  the  tree's  age  in  years,  each 
ring  being  the  growth  of  one  year.  An  occasional  exception  should  be 
noted,  as  when  accident  checks  the  tree's  growth  in  the  middle  of  the 
season,  and  the  growth  is  later  resumed.  In  that  case,  it  may  develop 
two  rings  in  one  year.  A  severe  frost  late  in  spring  after  leaves  have 
started  may  produce  that  result;  or  defoliation  by  caterpillars  in  early 


American  Forest  Trees  7 

summer  may  do  it.  Perhaps  not  one  tree  in  a  thousand  has  that 
experience  in  the  course  of  its  whole  life.  Trees  in  the  tropics  where 
seasons  are  nearly  the  same  the  year  through,  seldom  have  rings. 
Imitations  of  mahogany  are  sometimes  detected  by  noting  clearly 
marked  amiual  rings.  It  is  difficult  for  the  woodfinisher  to  obliterate 
the  annual  rings,  but  some  of  the  French  woodworkers  very  nearly 
accomplish  it. 

No  law  of  growth  governs  the  width  of  yearly  rings,  but  circum- 
stances have  much  to  do  with  it.  When  the  tree's  increase  in  size  is 
rapid,  rings  are  broad.  An  uncrowded  tree  in  good  soil  and  climate 
grows  much  faster  than  if  circumstances  are  adverse.  Carolina  poplar 
and  black  willow  sometimes  have  rings  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
broad,  while  in  the  white  bark  pine,  which  grows  above  the  snow  line 
in  California,  the  rings  may  be  so  narrow  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye. 

There  is  no  average  width  of  yearly  rings  and  no  average  age  of 
trees.  A  few  (very  few)  of  the  sequoias,  or  "big  trees"  of  California,  are 
two  thousand  years  old.  An  age  of  six  or  seven  centuries  appears  to  be 
about  the  limit  of  the  oldest  of  the  other  species  in  this  country,  though 
an  authentic  statement  to  that  effect  cannot  be  made.  There  are  species 
whose  life  average  scarcely  exceeds  that  of  men.  The  aspen  generally 
falls  before  it  is  eighty;  and  fire  cherry  scarcely  averages  half  of  that. 
Of  all  the  trees  cut  for  lumber,  perhaps  not  one  in  a  hundred  has  passed 
the  three  century  mark.  That  ratio  would  not  tiold  if  applied  to  the 
Pacific  coast  alone. 

Spring  and  Summerwood — These  are  not  usual  terms  with 
lumbermen  and  woodworkers,  but  belong  more  to  the  engineer  who 
thinks  of  physical  properties  of  timber,  particularly  its  strength.  Yet, 
sawmill  and  factory  men  are  well  acquainted  with  the  two  kinds  of  wood, 
but  they  are  likely  to  apply  the  term  "grain"  to  the  combination  of  the 
two. 

Spring  and  summerwood  make  the  annual  ring.  Springwood 
grows  early  in  the  season,  summerwood  later.  In  fact,  it  usually  is  the 
contrast  in  color  where  the  summerwood  of  one  season  abuts  against  the 
springwood  of  the  next  which  makes  the  ring  visible.  The  inside  of  the 
ring — that  portion  nearest  the  heart  of  the  tree — is  the  springwood,  the 
rest  of  the  ring  is  the  summerwood.  The  former  is  generally  lighter  in 
color.  Sometimes,  and  with  certain  species,  the  springwood  is  much 
broader  than  the  other.  The  summerwood  may  be  a  very  narrow 
band,  not  much  wider  than  a  fine  pencil  mark,  but  its  deeper  color  makes 
it  quite  distinct  in  most  instances.  In  other  instances,  as  with  some  of 
the  oaks,  the  summerwood  is  the  wider  part  of  the  annual  ring.     The 


8  American  Forest  Trees 

figure  or  "grain"  of  southern  yellow  pine  is  largely  due  to  the  contrast 
between  the  dark  summerwood  and  light  springwood  of  the  rings.  The 
same  is  true  of  ash,  chestnut,  and  of  many  other  woods. 

Pores — Wood  is  not  the  solid  substance  it  seems  to  be  when  seen 
in  the  mass.  If  magnified  it  appears  filled  with  cavities,  not  unlike  a 
piece  of  coral  or  honeycomb;  but  to  the  unaided  eye  only  a  few  of  the 
largest  openings  are  visible,  and  in  some  woods  like  maple,  none  can  be 
seen.  The  large  openings  are  known  as  pores.  They  are  so  prominent 
in  some  of  the  oaks  that  in  a  clean  cut  end  or  cross  section  they  look  like 
pin  holes.  Very  little  magnifying  is  required  to  bring  them  out  distinct- 
ly.    A  good  reading  glass  :s  sufficient. 

Pores  belong  to  hardwoods  only.  The  resin  ducts  in  some  soft- 
woods present  a  similar  appearance,  but  are  far  less  numerous.  All 
pores  are,  of  course,  situated  in  the  annual  rings,  but  in  different  species 
they  are  differently  located  as  to  spring  and  summerwood.  In  some 
woods  the  largest  pores  are  in  the  springwood  only  and  therefore  run  in 
rings.  Such  woods  are  called  "ring  porous,"  and  the  oaks  are  best 
examples.  In  other  species  the  pores  are  scattered  through  all  parts  of 
the  ring  in  about  the  same  proportion,  and  such  woods  are  called 
"diffuse  porous,"  as  the  birches.  Softwoods  have  no  pores  proper,  and 
are  classed  "non-porous." 

Medullary  Rays — A  smoothly-cut  cross  section  of  almost  any  oak, 
but  particularly  white  oak  and  red  oak,  exhibits  to  the  unaided  eye 
narrow,  light-colored  lines  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  tree  toward 
the  bark  like  spokes  of  a  wheel.  They  are  about  the  breadth  of  a  fine 
pencil  mark,  and  are  generally  a  sixth  of  an  inch  or  less  apart.  They 
are  among  the  most  conspicuous  and  characteristic  features  of  oak  wood, 
and  are  known  as  medullary  or  pith  rays. 

Oak  is  cited  as  an  example  because  the  rays  are  large  and  promi- 
nent, but  they  are  present  in  all  wood,  and  constitute  a  large  part  of  its 
body.  They  vary  greatly  in  size.  In  some  woods  a  few  are  visible 
unmagnified;  but  even  in  oak  a  hundred  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye 
to  one  that  can  be  seen.  Some  species  show  none  until  a  glass  is  used. 
Some  pines  have  fifteen  thousand  to  a  square  inch  of  cross  section,  all  of 
which  are  so  small  as  to  elude  successfully  the  closest  search  of  the 
unaided  eye. 

The  medullary  rays  influence  the  appearance  of  most  wood. 
They  determine  its  character.  Oak  is  quarter-sawed  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  out  the  bright,  flat  smiaces  of  these  rays.  The  prominent 
flecks,  streaks,  and  patches  of  silvery  wood  are  the  flat  sides  of  medul- 
lary rays.  In  cross  section,  only  the  line-like  ends  are  seen,  but 
quarter-sawing  exposes  their  sides  to  view. 


American  Forest  Trees  9 

That  explains  in  part  why  some  species  are  adapted  to  quarter- 
sawing  and  others  are  not.  If  no  broad  rays  exist  in  the  wood,  as  with 
white  pine,  red  cedar,  and  Cottonwood,  quarter-sawing  cannot  add  much 
to  the  wood's  appearance. 

Grain — The  grain  of  wood  is  not  a  definite  quality.  The  word 
does  not  mean  the  same  thing  to  all  who  use  it.  It  sometimes  refers 
to  rings  of  yearly  growth,  and  in  that  sense  a  narrow-ringed  wood  is  fine 
grained,  and  one  with  wide  rings  is  coarse  grained.  A  curly,  wavy, 
smoky,  or  birdseye  wood  does  not  owe  its  quality  to  annual  rings,  yet 
with  some  persons,  all  of  these  figiu-es  are  called  grain.  The  term  some- 
times refers  to  medullary  rays,  again  to  hardness,  or  to  roughness. 
Some  mahogany  is  called  "woolly  grained"  because  the  surface  polishes 
with  difficulty.  The  pattern  maker  designates  white  pine  as  "even 
grained",  because  it  cuts  easily  in  all  directions.  The  handle  maker 
classes  hickory  as  "smooth  grained",  because  it  polishes  well  and  the  sole 
idea  of  the  maker  is  smoothness  to  the  touch.  There  are  other  grains 
almost  as  numerous  as  the  trades  which  use  wood.  In  numerous 
instances  "figvue"  is  a  better  term  than  "grain."  Feather  mahogany, 
birdseye  birch,  burl  ash,  are  figm-es  rather  than  grains.  There  is  no 
authority  to  settle  and  decide  what  the  real  meaning  of  grain  is  in  wood 
technology.  It  has  a  number  of  meanings,  and  one  man  has  as  much 
authority  as  another  to  interpret  it  in  accordance  with  his  own  ideas, 
and  the  usage  in  his  trade.  It  is  a  loose  term  which  covers  several 
things  in  general  and  nothing  in  particular. 

Weight — The  weight  of  wood  is  calculated  from  different  stand- 
points. It  has  a  green  weight,  an  air-dry  weight,  a  kiln-dry  weight,  and 
an  oven-dry  weight.  All  are  different,  but  the  differences  are  due  to  the 
relative  amounts  of  water  weighed.  Sawlogs  generally  go  by  green 
weight;  yard  lumber  by  air-dry  or  partly  air-dry  weight;  while  the 
wood  used  in  ultimate  manufacture,  such  as  furniture,  is  supposed  to 
be  kiln-dry. 

The  absolute  weight  of  wood,  with  all  air  spaces,  moisture,  and 
other  foreign  material  removed,  is  about  100  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
which  is  1.6  times  heavier  than  water;  but  that  is  not  a  natural  form 
of  wood.     It  is  known  only  in  the  laboratory. 

The  actual  wood  substance  of  one  species  weighs  about  the  same 
as  another.  Dispense  with  all  air  spaces,  all  water,  and  all  other  foreign 
substance,  and  pine  and  ebony  weigh  alike.  It  is  apparent  that  the 
different  weights  of  woods,  as  between  cedar  and  oak  for  example,  are 
due  chiefly  to  porosity.  The  smaller  the  aggregate  space  occupied  by 
pores  and  other  cavities,  the  heavier  the  wood.  That  accounts  for  the 
differences  in  weights  of  absolutely  dry  woods  of  different  kinds,  except 


10  American  Forest  Trees 

that  a  small  amount  of  other  foreign  material  maj'  remain  after  water 
has  been  driven  off.  Florida  black  ironvvood  is  rated  as  the  heaviest  in 
the  United  States,  and  it  weighs  81.14  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  oven-dr>-. 
The  lightest  in  this  country  is  the  golden  fig  which  is  a  native  of  Florida 
also.  It  weighs  16.3  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  oven-dry.  When  weights 
of  wood  are  given,  the  specimen  is  understood  to  be  oven-dry,  unless  it 
is  stated  to  be  otherwise:  it  is  a  laboratory  weight,  calculated  from 
small  cubes  of  the  wood.  Such  weights  are  always  a  little  less  than  that 
of  the  drj'est  wood  of  the  same  kind  that  can  be  obtained  in  the  lumber 
market. 

Moisture  in  Wood — The  varying  weights  of  the  same  wood  indi- 
cate that  moisture  plays  an  important  part.  No  man  ever  saw 
absolutely  drj'  wood.  If  heated  sufficiently  to  drive  off  all  the  moisture, 
the  wood  is  reduced  to  charcoal  and  other  products  ol  destructive 
distillation. 

The  pores  and  other  cavities  in  green  timber  are  more  or  less  filled 
with  water  or  sap.  This  may  amount  to  one-third,  one-half,  or  even 
more,  of  the  dry  weight  of  the  wood.  The  water  is  in  the  hollow 
vessels  and  cell  walls.  A  living  tree  contains  about  the  same  quantity 
of  water  in  winter  as  in  summer,  though  the  common  belief  is  otherwise. 
It  is  misleading  to  say  that  the  sap  is  "down"  in  one  season  and  "up"  in 
another,  although  there  is  more  activity  at  certain  times  than  in  others. 
Strictly  speaking,  there  is  a  difference  between  the  water  in  a  tree,  and 
the  tree's  sap;  but  in  common  parlance  they  are  considered  identical. 
What  takes  place  is  this:  water  rises  from  the  tree's  roots,  through  the 
wood,  carrying  certain  minerals  in  solution.  Some  of  it  reaches  the 
leaves  in  summer  where  it  mixes  with  certain  gases  from  the  air,  and  is 
converted  into  sap  proper,  ^lost  of  the  surplus  water,  after  giving  up 
the  mineral  substance  held  in  solution,  is  evaporated  through  the  leaves 
into  the  air;  but  the  sap,  starting  from  the  leaves  which  act  as  laborator- 
ies for  its  manufacture,  goes  down  through  the  newly-formed  (and  form- 
ing), layer  of  wood  just  beneath  the  bark,  and  is  converted  into  wood. 
This  newly-formed  wood  is  colorless  at  first.  It  builds  up  the  annual 
ring,  first  the  springwood  very  rapidly,  and  then  the  summerwood 
more  slowly. 

The  force  which  causes  water  to  rise  through  the  trunk  of  a  tree  is 
not  fully  understood.  It  is  one  of  nature's  mysteries  which  is  yet  to  be 
solved.  Forces  known  as  root  pressure,  capillary  attraction,  and 
osmosis,  are  believed  to  be  active  in  the  process,  but  there  seems  to  be 
something  additional,  and  no  man  has  yet  been  able  to  explain  what  it  is. 

The  seasoning  of  wood  is  the  process  of  getting  rid  of  some  of  the 
water.     As  soon  as  lumber  is  exposed  to  air,  the  water  begins  to  escape. 


American  Forest  Trees  11 

Long  expostire  to  dry  air  takes  out  a  large  percentage  of  the  moisture 
which  green  wood  holds,  and  the  liunber  is  known  as  air-dry.  But 
some  of  the  original  moisture  remains,  and  air  at  climatic  temperature 
is  unable  to  expel  it.  The  greater  heat  of  a  drykiln  drives  away  some 
more  of  it,  but  a  quantity  yet  remains.  The  lumber  is  then  kiln-dry. 
Greater  heat  than  the  drykiln's  is  secured  in  an  oven,  and  a  little 
more  of  the  wood's  moisture  is  expelled;  but  the  only  method  of  driving 
all  the  moisture  out  is  to  heat  the  wood  sufficiently  to  break  down  its 
structvu-e,  and  reduce  it  to  charcoal. 

Wood  warps  in  the  process  of  drying  unless  it  seasons  equally  on 
all  sides.  It  curls  or  bends  toward  the  side  which  dries  most  rapidly. 
Dry  wood  may  warp  if  exposed  to  dampness,  if  one  side  is  more  exposed 
and  receives  more  moistiu-e  than  another.  It  curls  or  bends  toward 
the  dryer  side. 

Warping  is  primarily  due  to  the  more  rapid  contraction  or  ex- 
pansion of  wood  cells  on  one  side  of  the  piece  than  on  the  other. 
Saturated  cells  are  larger  than  dry  ones. 

Moisture  in  wood  affects  its  strength,  the  dryer  the  stronger,  at 
least  within  certain  limits.  Architects  and  builders  carefully  study  the 
seasoning  of  timber,  because  it  is  a  most  important  factor  in  their  busi- 
ness. The  moisture  which  most  affects  a  wood's  strength  is  that  ab- 
sorbed in  the  cell  walls,  rather  than  that  contained  in  the  cell  cavities 
themselves. 

Some  woods  check  or  split  badly  in  seasoning  unless  attended  with 
constant  care.  Checking  is  due  chiefly  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  season- 
ing. One  part  of  the  stick  dries  faster  than  another,  the  dryer  fibers 
contract,  and  the  pull  splits  the  wood.  The  checks  may  be  small, 
even  microscopic,  or  they  may  develop  yawning  cracks  such  as  some- 
times appear  in  the  ends  of  hickory  and  black  walnut  logs.  Greenwood 
checks  worse  in  summer  than  in  winter,  because  the  weather  is  warmer, 
the  wood's  surface  dries  faster,  and  the  strain  on  the  fibers  is  greater. 
Phases  of  the  moon  have  no  influence  on  the  seasoning,  checking,  warp- 
ing, or  lasting  properties  of  timber. 

Stiffness,  Elasticity,  and  Strength — Rules  for  measuring  the  stiffness 
of  timber  are  involved  in  mathematical  formulas;  but  the  practical 
quality  of  stiffness  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  Wood  which  does  not 
bend  easily  is  stiff.  If  it  springs  back  to  its  original  position  after  the 
removal  of  the  force  which  bends  it,  the  wood  is  elastic.  The  greatest 
load  it  can  sustain  without  breaking,  is  the  measure  of  its  strength.  The 
load  required  to  produce  a  certain  amount  of  bending  is  the  measiu-e  of 
its  stiffness.  Flexibility,  a  term  much  used  by  certain  classes  of  workers 
in  wood,  is  the  opposite  of  stiffness.     A  brittle  wood  is  not  necessarily 


12  American  Forest  Trees 

weak.  It  may  sustain  a  heavy  load  without  breaking,  but  when  it  fails, 
the  break  is  sudden  and  complete.  A  tough  wood  behaves  differently, 
though  it  may  not  be  as  strong  as  a  brittle  one.  When  a  tough  wood 
breaks,  the  parts  are  inclined  to  adhere  after  they  have  ceased  to  sustain 
the  load.  Hickory  is  tough,  and  in  breaking,  the  wood  crushes  and 
splinters.     Mesquite  is  brittle,  and  a  clean  snap  severs  the  stick  at  once. 

Builders  of  houses  and  bridges,  and  the  manufactvuers  of  articles 
of  wood,  study  with  the  greatest  care  the  stiffness,  elasticity,  strength, 
toughness,  and  brittleness  of  timber.  Its  chief  value  may  depend 
upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  one  or  more  of  these  properties.  Take 
away  hickory's  toughness  and  elasticity  and  it  would  cease  to  be  a 
great  vehicle  and  handle  material.  Reduce  the  stiffness  and  strength  of 
longleaf  pine  and  Douglas  fir  and  they  would  drop  at  once  from  the  high 
esteem  in  which  they  are  held  as  structural  timbers.  Destroy  the 
brittleness  of  red  cedar  and  it  would  lose  one  of  the  chief  qualities  which 
make  it  the  leading  lead  pencil  wood  of  the  world. 

There  are  recognized  methods  of  measuring  these  important 
physical  properties  of  woods,  but  they  are  expressed  in  language  so 
technical  that  it  means  little  to  persons  who  are  not  specialists.  For 
ordinary  purposes,  it  is  unnecessary  to  be  more  explicit  than  to  state  a 
certain  wood  is  or  is  not  strong,  stiff,  tough  and  elastic.  Some  species 
possess  one  or  more  of  these  properties  to  double  the  degree  that  others 
possess  then.  Different  trees  of  the  same  species  differ  greatly,  and 
even  different  parts  of  the  same  tree.  Most  tables  of  figures  which  show 
the  various  physical  properties  of  woods,  give  averages  only,  not  abso- 
lute values. 

Hardness — In  some  woods  hardness  is  considered  an  advantage, 
but  not  in  others.  If  sugar  maple  were  as  soft  as  white  pine,  it  would 
not  be  the  great  floor  material  it  is ;  and  if  white  pine  were  as  hard  as 
maple,  pattern  makers  would  not  want  it,  door  and  sash  manufacturers 
would  get  along  with  less,  and  it  would  not  be  the  leading  packing  box 
material  in  so  wide  a  region. 

It  is  generally  the  summer  growth  in  the  annual  rings  which  makes 
a  wood  hard.  The  summerwood  is  dense.  A  given  bulk  of  it  contains 
more  actual  wood  substance  and  less  air  and  water  than  the  spring- 
wood.  For  the  same  reason,  summerwood  gives  weight,  and  a  relation- 
ship between  hardness  and  weight  holds  generally.  It  may  be  added 
that  strength  goes  with  weight  and  hardness,  but  it  is  not  a  rule  without 
apparent  exceptions. 

Some  woods  possess  twice  or  three  times  the  hardness  of  others. 
Among  some  of  the  hardest  in  the  United  States  are  hickory,  sugar 
maple,  mesquite,  the  Florida  ironwoods,  Osage  orange,  locust,  persim- 


American  Forest  Trees  13 

mon,  and  the  best  oak  and  elm.  Among  the  softest  species  are  buckeye, 
basswood,  cedar,  redwood,  some  of  the  pines,  spruce,  hemlock,  and 
chestnut. 

The  hardness  of  wood  is  tested  with  a  machine  which  records  the 
pressm^e  required  to  indent  the  surface.  The  condition  of  the  specimen, 
as  to  dryness,  has  much  to  do  with  its  hardness.  So  many  other  factors 
exercise  influence  that  nothing  less  than  an  actual  test  will  determine 
the  hardness  of  a  sample.  A  table  of  figures  can  show  it  only  approxi- 
mately and  by  averages. 

Cleavability — Wood  users  generally  demand  a  material  which  does 
not  split  easily,  but  the  reverse  is  sometimes  required.  Rived  staves 
must  come  from  timbers  which  split  easily.  Many  handles  are  from 
billets  which  are  split  in  rough  form  and  are  afterwards  dressed  to  the 
required  size  and  shape.  In  these  instances,  splitting  is  preferable  to 
sawing,  because  a  rived  billet  is  free  from  cross  grain. 

The  cleavability  of  woods  differs  greatly.  Some  can  scarcely  be 
split.  Black  gum  is  in  that  list,  and  sycamore  to  a  less  extent.  Young 
trees  of  some  species  split  more  readily  than  old,  while  with  others,  the 
advantage  is  with  the  old.  Young  sycamore  may  generally  be  split 
with  ease,  but  old  trunks  seem  to  develop  interlocked  fibers  which  defy 
the  wedge.  A  white  oak  pole  is  hard  to  split,  but  the  old  tree  yields 
readily.  Few  woods  are  more  easily  split  than  chestnut.  With  most 
timbers  cleavage  is  easiest  along  the  radial  lines,  that  is,  from  the  heart 
to  the  bark.  The  flat  sides  of  the  medullary  rays  lie  in  that  plane. 
Cleavage  along  tangential  lines  is  easy  with  some  woods.  The  line  of 
cleavage  follows  the  soft  springwood.  Green  timber  is  generally,  but 
not  always,  more  easily  split  than  dry.  As  a  rule,  the  more  elastic  a 
wood  is,  the  more  readily  it  may  be  split. 

Durability — In  Egypt  where  climatic  conditions  are  highly  favor- 
able, Lebanon  cedar.  North  African  acacia.  East  African  persimmon,  and 
oriental  sycamore  have  remained  sound  during  three  or  foiu:  thousand 
years.  In  the  moist  forests  of  the  northwestern  Pacific  coast,  an  alder 
log  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter  will  decay  through  and  through  in  a 
single  year.  No  wood  is  immune  to  decay  if  exposed  to  influences 
which  induce  it,  but  some  resist  for  long  periods.  Osage  orange  and 
locust  fence  posts  may  stand  half  a  century.  Timber  from  which  air 
is  excluded,  as  when  deeply  buried  in  wet  earth  or  under  water, 
will  last  indefinitely;  but  if  it  is  exposed  to  alternate  dampness  and 
dryness,  decay  will  destroy  it  in  a  few  years. 

It  is  apparent  that  resistance  to  decay  is  not  a  property  inherent  in 
the  wood,  but  depends  on  circumstances.  However,  the  ability  to 
resist  decay  varies  greatly  with  different  species,  under  similar  circum- 


14  American  Forest  Trees 

stances.  Buckeye  and  red  cedar  fence  posts,  situated  alike,  wnll  not 
last  alike.  The  buckeye  may  be  expected  to  fall  in  two  or  three  years, 
and  the  cedar  will  stand  twenty.  Timbers  light  in  weight  and  light  in 
color  are,  as  a  class,  quick-decaying  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  rule  holds  in  most  cases  that  sapwood  decays  more  quickly 
than  heart  when  both  are  subject  to  similar  exposure.  The  matter 
of  decay  is  not  important  when  lumber  and  other  products  intended  for 
use  are  in  dry  situations.  Furniture  and  interior  house  finish  do  not 
decay  under  ordinary  circumstances,  no  matter  what  the  species  of  wood 
may  be ;  but  resistance  to  decay  overshadows  almost  any  other  consider- 
ation in  choosing  mine  timbers, crossties,  fence  posts, and  tanks  and  silos. 

Decay  in  timber  is  not  simply  a  chemical  process,  but  is  due 
primarily  to  the  activities  of  a  low  order  of  plants  known  as  fungi, 
sometimes  bacteria.  The  fungi  produce  thread-like  filaments  which 
penetrate  the  body  of  the  wood,  ramifying  in  and  passing  from  cell  to 
cell,  absorbing  certain  materials  therein,  and  ultimately  breaking  down 
and  destroying  the  structure  of  the  wood.  Both  air  and  dampness  are 
essential  to  the  growth  of  fungus.  That  is  the  reason  why  timbers  deep 
beneath  ground  or  water  do  not  decay.  Air  is  absent,  though  moisture 
is  abundant;  while  in  the  dry  Egyptian  tombs,  air  is  abundant  but 
moisture  is  wanting,  fungus  cannot  exist,  and  consequently  decay  of  the 
wood  does  not  occxir.  Nothing  is  needed  to  render  timber  immune  to 
decay  except  to  keep  fungus  out  of  the  cells.  Some  of  the  fungus 
concerned  in  wood  rotting  is  microscopic,  while  other  appears  in  forms 
and  sizes  easily  seen  and  recognized. 

Timber  may  be  protected  for  a  time  against  the  agencies  of  decay 
by  covering  the  surface  with  paint,  thereby  preventing  the  entrance  of 
fungus.  By  another  process,  certain  oils  or  other  materials  which  are 
poisonous  to  the  insinuating  threads  of  fungus,  are  forced  into  the  pores 
of  the  wood.  Creosote  is  often  used  for  this  purpose.  Attacks  are  thus 
warded  off,  and  decay  is  hindered.  The  preservative  fluid  will  not 
remain  permanently  in  wood  exposed  to  weather  conditions,  but  the 
period  during  which  it  affords  protection  and  immunity  extends  over 
some  years;  but  different  woods  vary  greatly  in  their  ability  to  receive 
and  retain  preservative  mixtures. 

The  better  seasoned,  the  less  liable  is  timber  to  decay,  because  it 
contains  less  moisture  to  support  fungi.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
timber  cut  in  the  fall  of  the  year  is  less  subject  to  decay  than  if  felled  in 
summer.  If  it  is  so,  the  reason  for  it  lies  in  the  fact  that  fungus  is  inac- 
tive diu-ing  winter,  and  before  the  coming  of  warm  weather  the  timber 
has  partly  dried  near  the  surface,  and  fungi  cannot  pass  through  the 
dry  outside  to  reach  the  interior.     Timber  cut  in  warm  weather  may  be 


American  Forest  Trees  15 

attacked  at  once,  and  before  cold  weather  stops  the  activities  of  fungus 
it  has  reached  the  interior  of  the  wood  and  the  process  of  rotting  is 
under  way.  When  the  agents  of  decay  have  begun  to  grow  in  the  wood, 
destruction  will  go  on  as  long  as  air  and  moisture  conditions  are  favor- 
able. 

The  bluing  of  wood  is  an  incipient  decay  and  is  generally  due  to 
fungus.  Some  kinds  of  wood  are  more  susceptible  to  bluing  than  others. 
Though  boards  mayquickly  season  sufficiently  to  put  a  stop  to  the  bluing 
process  before  it  has  actually  weakened  the  material,  the  result  is  more 
or  less  injurious.  The  wood's  natural  color  and  luster  undergo  deteri- 
oration ;  it  does  not  reflect  light  as  formerly,  and  seems  dead  and  flat. 

Decay  affects  sapwood  more  readily  than  heart.  The  reason  may 
be  that  sapwood  contains  more  food  for  fungus,  thereby  inducing  greater 
activity.  The  sapwood  is  on  the  outside  of  timbers  and  is  often  more 
exposed  than  the  heart.  In  some  instances  greater  decay  may  be  due  to 
greater  exposure.  Another  reason  for  more  rapid  decay  of  sapwood 
than  heart  is  the  fact  that  the  pores  of  the  heartwood  are  more  or  less 
filled  with  coloring  matter  deposited  while  the  growth  of  the  tree  was 
in  progress.  The  coloring  matter,  in  many  cases,  acts  as  a  preservative ; 
it  shuts  the  threads  of  fungus  out.  Sometimes  the  sapwood  of  a  dead 
tree  or  a  log  is  totally  destroyed  while  the  heart  remains  sound.  This 
often  happens  with  red  cedar  and  sometimes  with  black  walnut,  yellow 
poplar,  and  cherry.  Occasionally  a  tree's  bark  is  more  resistant  to  decay 
than  its  wood.  Paper  birch  and  yellow  birch  logs  in  damp  situa- 
tions occasionally  show  this.  What  appears  to  be  a  solid  fallen  trunk, 
proves  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  shell  of  bark  with  a  soft,  pulpy 
mass  of  decayed  wood  within. 


WHITE  PINE 


T 


WHITE  PINE* 

(Pinus  Strobus) 

HE  best  known  wood  of  the  United  States  has  never  been  burdened 
with  a  multitude  of  names,  as  many  minor  species  have.  It  is 
commonly  known  as  white  pine  in  every  region  where  it  grows,  and  in 
many  where  the  living  tree  is  never  seen,  except  when  planted  for 
ornament.  The  light  color  of  the  wood  suggests  the  name.  The  bark 
and  the  foliage  are  of  somber  hue,  though  not  as  dark  as  hemlock  and 
many  of  the  pines.  The  name  Weymouth  pine  is  occasionally  heard,  but 
it  is  more  used  in  books  than  by  lumbermen.  It  is  commonly  supposed 
that  the  name  refers  to  Lord  Weymouth  who  interested  himself  in  the 
tree  at  an  early  period,  but  this  has  been  disputed.  In  Pennsylvania  it 
is  occasionally  called  soft  pine  to  distinguish  it  from  the  harder  and 
inferior  pitch  pine  and  table  mountain  pine  with  which  it  is  sometimes 
associated.  It  is  the  softest  of  the  pines,  and  the  name  is  not  in- 
appropriate. In  some  regions  of  the  South,  where  it  is  well  known, 
it  is  called  northern  spruce  pine  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
northern  species  which  has  followed  the  Appalachian  mountain  ranges 
some  hundreds  of  miles  southward.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  this 
name  when  applied  to  white  pine.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  no  less  than  a  dozen  tree  species  in  the  United  States  are  sometimes 
called  spruce  pine.  Cork  pine  is  a  trade  name  applied  more  frequently 
to  the  wood  than  to  the  living  tree.  It  is  the  wood  of  old,  matiu-e,  first 
class  trunks,  as  nearly  perfect  as  can  be  found.  Pumpkin  pine  is  another 
name  given  to  the  same  class  of  wood.  It  is  so  named  because  the  grain 
is  homogeneous,  like  a  pumpkin,  and  may  be  readily  cut  and  carved  in 
any  direction.  It  is  the  ideal  wood  for  the  pattern  maker,  but  it  is  now 
hard  to  get  because  the  venerable  white  pines,  many  hundred  years  old, 
are  practically  gone. 

The  northern  limit  of  the  range  of  white  pine  stretches  from 
Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  more  than  1800  miles  east  and  west  across 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  southward  to  northern  Georgia,  1200 
miles  in  a  north  and  south  direction.  But  white  pine  does  not  grow  in 
all  parts  of  the  territory  thus  delimited.     It  attained  magnificent 


*The  following  12  species  are  usually  classed  soft  pines:  White  Pine  (Pinus 
strobus) ;  Sugar  Pine  {Pinus  lambertiana) ;  Western  White  Pine  (Pinus  monticola) ; 
Mexican  White  Pine  (Pinus  strobiformis) ;  Limber  Pine  (Pinus  flexilis) ;  Whitebark 
Pine  (Pinus  albicaulis) ;  Foxtail  Pine  (Pinus  bal/ouriana) ;  Parry  Pine  (Pinus 
quadrifolia) ;  Mexican  Pinon  (Pinus  cembroides) ;  Pinon  (Pinus  edulis) ;  Singteleaf 
Piaon  (Pinus  monophylla) ;  Bristlecone  Pine  (Pinus  aristaia). 


20  American  Forest  Trees 

development  in  certain  large  regions  before  lumbering  began,  and  in 
others  it  was  scarce  or  totally  wanting.  Its  ability  to  maintain  itself 
on  land  too  thin  for  vigorous  hardwood  growth  gave  it  a  monopoly  of 
enormous  stretches  of  sandy  country,  particularly  in  the  Lake  States.  It 
occupied  large  areas  in  New  England  and  southern  Canada;  developed 
splendid  stands  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania;  and  it  covered  certain 
mountains  and  uplands  southward  along  the  mountain  ranges  across 
Maryland,  West  Virginia,  and  the  elevated  regions  two  or  three  hundred 
miles  farther  south. 

A  dozen  or  more  varieties  of  white  pine  have  been  developed  under 
cultivation,  but  they  interest  the  niu-seryman,  not  the  lumberman. 
In  all  the  wide  extension  of  its  range,  and  during  all  past  time,  natiu'e 
was  never  able  to  develop  a  single  variety  of  white  pine  which  departed 
from  the  typical  species.  For  that  reason  it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
objects  of  study  in  the  tree  kingdom.  True,  the  white  pine  in  the  south- 
ern mountains  differs  slightly  from  the  northern  tree,  but  botanically  it 
is  the  same.  Its  wood  is  a  little  heavier,  its  branches  are  more  resinous 
and  consequently  adhere  a  longer  time  to  the  trunk  after  they  die, 
resulting  in  lumber  with  more  knots.  The  southern  wood  is  more 
tinged  with  red,  the  knots  are  redder  and  usually  sounder  than  in  the 
North. 

It  is  unfortunately  necessary  in  speaking  of  white  pine  forests  to 
use  the  past  tense,  for  most  of  the  primeval  stands  have  disappeared. 
The  range  is  as  extensive  as  ever,  because  wherever  a  forest  once  grew, 
a  few  trees  remain;  but  the  merchantable  timber  has  been  cut  in  most 
regions.  The  tree  bears  winged  seeds  which  quickly  scatter  over  vacant 
spaces,  and  new  growth  would  long  ago,  in  most  cases,  have  taken  the 
place  of  the  old,  had  not  fires  persistently  destroyed  the  seedlings.  In 
parts  of  New  England  where  fire  protection  is  afforded,  dense  stands  of 
white  pine  are  coming  on,  and  in  numerous  instances  profitable  lumber 
operations  are  carried  on  in  second  growth  forests.  That  condition 
does  not  exist  generally  in  white  pine  regions.  Primeval  stands  were 
seldom  absolutely  pure,  but  sometimes,  in  bodies  of  thousands  of  acres, 
there  was  little  but  white  pine.  Generally  hardwoods  or  other  soft- 
woods grew  with  the  pine.  At  its  best,  it  is  the  largest  pine  of  the 
"United  States,  except  the  sugar  pine  of  California.  The  largest  trees 
grew  in  New  England  where  diameters  of  six  or  more  feet  and  heights 
exceeding  200  feet  were  found.  A  diameter  of  four  and  five  feet  and  a 
height  of  150  feet  are  about  the  size  limits  in  the  Lake  States  and  the 
southern  mountains.  Trees  two  or  three  feet  through  and  ninety  and 
120  tall  are  a  fair  average  for  mature  timber. 

The  wood  of  white  pine  is  among  the  lightest  of  the  commercial 


American  Forest  Trees  21 

timbers  of  this  country,  and  among  the  softest.  While  it  is  not  strong,  it 
compares  favorably,  weight  for  weight,  with  most  others.  It  is  of  rather 
rapid  growth,  and  the  rings  of  annual  increase  are  clearly  defined, 
and  they  contain  comparatively  few  resin  ducts.  For  that  reason  it 
may  be  classed  as  a  close,  compact  wood.  It  polishes  well,  may  be 
cut  with  great  ease,  and  after  it  is  seasoned  it  holds  its  form  better  than 
most  woods.  That  property  fits  it  admirably  for  doors  and  sash  and  for 
backing  of  veneer,  where  a  little  warping  or  twisting  would  do  much 
harm. 

The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  are  too  small  to  be  easily 
seen  separately,  and  do  not  figure  much  in  the  appearance  of  the  wood. 
The  resin  passages  are  few  and  small,  but  the  wood  contains  enough 
resin  to  give  it  a  characteristic  odor,  which  is  not  usually  considered 
injurious  to  merchandise  shipped  in  pine  boxes.  The  white  color  of  the 
wood  gives  it  much  of  its  value.  Though  rather  weak,  white  pine  is 
stiff,  rather  low  in  elasticity,  is  practically  wanting  in  toughness,  has 
little  figure,  and  when  exposed  to  alternate  dryness  and  dampness  it  is 
rated  poor  in  lasting  properties ;  yet  shingles  and  weather  boarding  of  this 
wood  have  been  known  to  stand  half  a  century.  The  sapwood  is  lighter 
in  color  than  the  heart,  and  decays  more  quickly. 

As  long  as  white  pine  was  abundant  it  surpassed  all  other  woods 
of  this  country  in  the  amount  used.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  exports 
from  New  England,  and  it  went  to  the  West  Indies  and  to  Europe. 
England  attempted  to  control  the  cutting  and  export  of  white  pine,  but 
was  unsuccessful.  At  an  early  period  the  rivers  were  utilized  for  trans- 
porting the  logs  and  the  lumber  to  market,  and  that  method  has  con- 
tinued until  the  present  time.  Spectacular  log  drives  were  common  in 
early  times  in  New  England,  later  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  still  later  in  Michigan  and  the  other  Lake  States.  Many  billions 
of  feet  of  faultless  logs  have  gone  down  flooded  rivers.  The  scenes  in 
the  woods  and  the  life  in  lumber  camps  have  been  written  in  novels  and 
romances,  and  the  central  figure  of  it  all  was  white  pine. 

There  are  a  few  things  for  which  this  wood  is  not  suitable;  other- 
wise its  use  has  been  nearly  universal  in  some  parts  of  this  country. 
It  went  into  masts  and  matches,  which  are  the  largest  and  smallest 
conmiodities,  and  into  almost  every  shape  and  size  of  product  between. 
Most  of  the  early  houses  and  barns  in  the  pine  region  were  built  of  it. 
Hewed  pine  was  the  foundation,  and  the  shingles  were  of  split  and  shaved 
pine.  It  formed  floors,  doors,  sash,  and  shutters.  It  was  the  ceiling 
within  and  the  weather  boarding  without.  It  fenced  the  fields  and 
bridged  the  streams.  It  went  to  market  as  rough  lumber,  and  planing 
mills  tiu-ned  it  out  as  dressed  stock  in  various  forms.     It  has  probably 


22  American  Forest  Trees 

been  more  extensively  employed  by  box  makers  than  any  other  wood, 
and  though  it  is  scarcer  than  formerly,  hundreds  of  millions  of  feet  of  it 
are  still  used  annually  by  box  makers.  Scores  of  millions  of  feet  yearly 
are  demanded  by  the  manufacturers  of  window  shade  rollers,  though 
individually  the  roller  is  a  very  small  commodity.  In  this,  as  for 
patterns  and  many  other  things,  no  satisfactory  substitute  for  white 
pine  has  been  found. 

As  a  timber  tree,  it  will  not  disappear  from  this  country,  though 
the  days  of  its  greatest  importance  are  past.  Enormous  tracts  where 
it  once  grew  will  apparently  never  again  produce  a  white  pine  sawlog. 
The  prospect  is  more  encouraging  in  other  regions,  and  there  will  always 
be  a  considerable  quantity  of  this  lumber  in  the  American  market, 
though  the  high  percentage  of  good  grades  which  prevailed  in  the  past 
will  not  continue  in  the  future. 

White  pine  belongs  in  the  five  needle  group,  that  is,  five  leaves 
grow  in  a  bimdle.  They  turn  yellow  and  fall  in  the  autumn  of  the 
second  year.  The  cones  are  slender,  are  from  five  to  eleven  inches 
in  length,  and  ripen  and  disperse  their  seeds  in  the  autumn  of  the  second 
year. 


WESTERN  WHITE  PINE 


WESTERN  WHITE  PINE 

(Pinus  Monticola) 

THE  silvery  luster  of  the  needles  of  this  tree  gives  it  the  name  silver 
pine,  by  which  many  people  know  it.  It  appears  in  literature 
as  mountain  Weymouth  pine,  the  reference  being  to  the  eastern  white 
pine  {Pinus  sirobus),  which  is  sometimes  called  Weymouth  pine. 
Finger-cone  pine  is  a  California  name ;  so  are  mountain  pine  and  soft  pine. 
In  the  same  state  it  is  called  little  sugar  pine,  to  distinguish  it  from  sugar 
pine  (Pinus  lamberiiana) ,  which  it  resembles  in  some  particulars  but 
not  in  all.  It  is  thus  seen  that  California  is  generous  in  bestowing  names 
on  this  tree,  notwithstanding  it  is  not  abundant  in  any  part  of  that  state 
and  is  unknown  in  most  parts. 

The  botanical  name  means  "mountain  pine,"  and  that  describes  the 
species.  It  does  best  among  the  mountains,  and  it  ranges  from  an 
altitude  of  from  4,000  feet  to  10,000  on  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains. 
Sometimes  trees  of  very  large  size  are  found  near  the  upper  limits  of  its 
range,  but  the  best  stands  are  in  valleys  and  on  slopes  at  lower  altitudes. 
Its  range  lies  in  British  Columbia,  Montana,  Idaho,  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California.  In  the  latter  state  it  follows  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains  southward  to  the  San  Joaquin  river. 

This  species  has  been  compared  with  the  white  pine  of  the  East 
oftener  than  with  any  other  species.  The  weights  of  the  two  woods  are 
nearly  the  same,  and  both  are  light.  Their  fuel  values  are  about  the 
same.  The  strength  of  the  eastern  tree  is  a  little  higher,  but  the  western 
species  is  stiffer.  The  woods  of  both  are  light  in  color,  but  that  of  the 
eastern  tree  is  whiter;  both  are  soft,  but  again  the  advantage  is  with  the 
eastern  tree.  The  western  pine  generally  grows  rapidly  and  the  annual 
rings  are  wide ;  but,  like  most  other  species,  it  varies  in  its  rate  of 
growth,  and  trunks  are  found  with  narrow  rings.  The  summerwood  is 
thin,  not  conspicuous,  and  slightly  resinous.  The  small  resin  passages 
are  numerous.  The  heartwood  is  fairly  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil. 

The  western  white  pine  has  entered  many  markets  in  recent  years, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  the  annual  cut  is.  Statistics  often 
include  this  species  and  the  western  yellow  pine  under  one  name,  or  at 
least  confuse  one  with  the  other,  and  there  is  no  way  to  determine  ex- 
actly how  much  of  the  sawmill  output  belongs  to  each.  The  bulk  of 
merchantable  western  white  pine  lumber  is  cut  in  Idaho  and  Montana. 
The  stands  are  seldom  pure,  but  this  species  frequently  predominates 
over  its  associates.     When  pure  forests  are  found,  the  yield  is  some- 

25 


26  American  Forest  Trees 

times  very  high,  as  much  as  130,000  feet  of  logs  growing  on  a  single 
acre.  That  quantity  is  not  often  equalled  by  any  other  forest  tree, 
though  redwood  and  Douglas  fir  sometimes  go  considerably  above  it. 

The  western  white  pine's  needles  grow  in  clusters  of  five  and  are 
from  one  and  a  half  to  four  inches  long.  The  cones  are  from  ten  to 
eighteen  inches  long.  The  seeds  ripen  the  second  year.  Reproduction 
is  vigorous  and  the  forest  stands  are  holding  their  own.  Trees  about 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  high  and  eight  feet  in  diameter  are 
met  with,  but  the  average  size  is  one  hundred  feet  high  and  from 
two  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  or  about  the  size  of  eastern  white  pine. 

The  wood  is  useful  and  has  been  giving  service  since  the  settlement 
of  the  country  began,  fifty  or  more  years  ago.  Choice  trunks  were  split 
for  shakes  or  shingles,  but  the  wood  is  inferior  in  splitting  qualities  to 
either  eastern  white  pine  or  California  sugar  pine,  because  of  more 
knots.  The  western  white  pine  does  not  prune  itself  early  or  well.  Dead 
limbs  adhere  to  the  trunk  long  after  the  sugar  pine  would  shed  them.  In 
split  products,  the  western  white  pine's  principal  rival  has  been  the 
western  red  cedar.  The  pine  has  been  much  employed  for  mine  timbers 
in  the  region  where  it  is  abundant.  Miners  generally  take  the  most 
convenient  wood  for  props,  stulls,  and  lagging.  A  little  higher  use  for 
pine  is  found  among  the  mines,  where  is  it  made  into  tanks,  flumes, 
sluice  boxes,  water  pipes,  riffle  blocks,  rockers,  and  guides  for  stamp 
mills.  However,  the  total  quantity  used  by  miners  is  comparatively 
small.  Much  more  goes  to  ranches  for  fences  and  buildings.  It  is  serv- 
iceable, and  is  shipped  outside  the  immediate  region  of  production  and 
is  marketed  in  the  plains  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  is 
excellent  fence  material. 

A  larger  market  is  found  in  manufactirring  centers  farther  east. 
Western  white  pine  is  shipped  to  Chicago  where  it  is  manufactured  into 
doors,  sash,  and  interior  finish,  in  competition  with  all  other  woods  in 
that  market.  It  is  said  to  be  of  frequent  occurrence  that  the  very 
pine  which  is  shipped  in  its  rough  form  out  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
goes  back  finished  as  doors  and  sash.  When  the  mountain  regions 
shall  have  better  manufacturing  facilities,  this  will  not  occur.  In  the 
manufacture  of  window  and  hothouse  sash,  glass  is  more  important 
than  wood,  although  each  is  useless  without  the  other.  The  principal 
glass  factories  are  in  the  East,  and  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  ship 
the  wood  to  the  glass  factory,  have  the  sash  made  there,  and  the  glazing 
done;  and  the  finished  sash,  ready  for  use,  may  go  back  to  the  sotu-ce 
of  the  timber. 

The  same  operation  is  sometimes  repeated  for  doors;  but  in  recent 
years  the  mountain  region  where  this  pine  grows  has  been  supplied 


American  Forest  Trees  27 

with  factories  and  there  is  now  less  shipping  of  raw  material  out  and 
of  finished  products  back  than  formerly.  The  development  of  the  fruit 
industry  in  the  elevated  valleys  of  Idaho,  Montana,  Washington,  and 
Oregon  has  called  for  shipping  boxes  in  large  numbers,  and  western 
white  pine  has  been  found  an  ideal  wood  for  that  use.  It  is  light  in 
weight  and  in  color,  strong  enough  to  satisfy  all  ordinary  requirements, 
and  cheap  enough  to  bring  it  within  reach  of  orchardists.  It  meets 
with  lively  competition  from  a  number  of  other  woods  which  grow 
abundantly  in  the  region,  but  it  holds  its  ground  and  takes  its  share  of 
the  business. 

Estimates  of  the  total  stand  of  western  white  pine  among  its  native 
mountains  have  not  been  published,  but  the  quantity  is  known  to  be 
large.  It  is  a  difficult  species  to  estimate  because  it  is  scattered  widely, 
large,  pure  stands  being  scarce.  Some  large  mills  make  a  specialty  of 
sawing  this  species.  The  annual  output  is  believed  to  reach  150,000,- 
000  feet,  most  of  which  is  in  Idaho  and  Montana. 

Mexican  White  Pine  {Pinus  strobiformis)  is  not  sufficiently 
abundant  to  be  of  much  importance  in  the  United  States.  The  best  of  it 
is  south  of  the  international  boundary  in  Mexico,  but  the  species  extends 
into  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  where  it  is  most  abundant  at  altitudes  of 
from  6,000  to  8,000  feet.  The  growth  is  generally  scattering,  and  the 
trunks  are  often  deformed  through  fire  injury,  and  are  inclined  to  be 
limby  and  of  poor  form.  The  best  trees  are  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet  high,  and  two  in  diameter;  but  many  are  scarcely  half  that  size.  The 
lumbermen  of  the  region,  who  cut  Mexican  white  pine,  are  inclined  to 
place  low  value  on  it,  not  because  the  wood  is  of  poor  quality,  but 
because  it  is  scarce.  It  is  generally  sent  to  market  with  western  yellow 
pine.  Excellent  grades  and  quality  of  this  wood  are  shipped  into  the 
United  States  from  Mexico,  but  not  in  large  amounts.  An  occasional 
carload  reaches  door  and  sash  factories  in  Texas,  and  woodworkers  as 
far  east  as  Michigan  are  acquainted  with  it,  through  trials  and  experi- 
ments which  they  have  made.  It  is  highly  recommended  by  those  who 
have  tried  it.  Some  consider  it  as  soft,  as  easy  to  work,  and  as  free  from 
warping  and  checking  as  the  eastern  white  pine.  In  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  the  tree  is  known  as  ayacahuite  pine,  white  pine,  and  Arizona 
white  pine.  The  wood  is  moderately  light,  fairly  strong,  rather  stiff, 
of  slow  growth,  and  the  bands  of  suramerwood  are  comparatively 
broad.  The  resin  passages  are  few  and  large.  The  wood  is  light  red, 
the  sap  wood  whiter.  The  leaves  occur  in  clusters  of  five,  are  three  or 
four  inches  long,  and  fall  during  the  third  and  fourth  years.  The  seeds 
are  large  and  have  small  wings  which  cannot  carry  them  far  from  the 
parent  tree. 


28  American  Forest  Trees 

PiNON  {Pinus  edulis).  This  is  one  of  the  nut  pines  abounding 
among  the  western  mountains,  and  it  is  called  pinon  in  Texas,  nut  pine  in 
Texas  and  Colorado,  pinon  pine  and  New  Mexican  pinon  in  other  parts 
of  its  range,  extending  from.  Colorado  through  New  Mexico  to  western 
Texas.  It  has  two  and  three  leaves  to  the  cluster.  They,  begin  to  fall 
the  third  year  and  continue  through  six  or  seven  years  following.  The 
cones  are  quite  small,  the  largest  not  exceeding  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  length.  Trees  are  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  high,  and  large  trunks  may 
be  two  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  The  tree  runs  up  mountain  sides  to 
altitudes  of  8,000  or  9,000  feet.  It  exists  in  rather  large  bodies,  but  is  not 
an  important  timber  tree,  because  the  trunks  are  short  and  are  generally 
of  poor  form.  It  often  branches  near  the  ground  and  assumes  the 
appearance  of  a  large  shrub.  Ties  of  pinon  have  been  used  with  various 
results.  Some  have  proved  satisfactory,  others  have  proved  weak 
by  breaking,  and  the  ties  occasionally  split  when  spikes  are  driven. 
The  wood's  service  as  posts  varies  also.  Some  posts  will  last  only  three 
or  four  years,  while  others  remain  sound  a  long  time.  The  difference 
in  lasting  properties  is  due  to  the  difference  in  resinous  contents  of  the 
wood.  Few  softwoods  rank  above  it  in  fuel  value,  and  much  is  cut  in 
some  localities.  Large  areas  have  been  totally  stripped  for  fuel.  Char- 
coal for  local  smithies  is  burned  from  this  pine.  The  wood  is  widely 
used  for  ranch  purposes,  but  not  in  large  quantities.  The  edible  nuts 
are  sought  by  birds,  rodents,  and  Indians.  Some  stores  keep  the  nuts 
for  sale.  The  tree  is  handicapped  in  its  effort  at  reproduction  by  weight, 
and  the  small  wing  power  of  the  seeds.  They  fall  near  the  base  of  the 
parent  tree,  and  most  of  them  are  speedily  devoiured. 


SUGAR  PINE 


Sugar  Pine 


SUGAR  PINE 

(Pinus  Lambertiana) 

THIS  is  the  largest  pine  of  the  United  States,  and  probably  is  the 
largest  true  pine  in  the  world.  Its  rival,  the  Kauri  pine  of  New 
Zealand,  is  not  a  pine  according  to  the  classification  of  botanists;  and 
that  leaves  the  sugar  pine  supreme,  as  far  as  the  world  has  been  explored, 
David  Douglas,  the  first  to  describe  the  species,  reported  a  tree  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter  and  245  feet  high,  in  southern  Oregon.  No  tree  of 
similar  size  has  been  reported  since ;  but  trunks  six,  ten,  and  even  twelve 
feet  through,  and  more  than  200  high  are  not  rare. 

The  range  of  sugar  pine  extends  from  southern  Oregon  to  lower 
California.  Through  California  it  follows  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains 
in  a  comparatively  narrow  belt.  In  Oregon  it  descends  within  1,000  feet 
of  sea  level,  but  the  lower  limit  of  its  range  gradually  rises  as  it  follows 
the  mountains  southward,  until  in  southern  California  it  is  8,000  or 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  choice  of  situation  is  in  the  mountain 
belt  where  the  annual  precipitation  is  forty  inches  or  more.  The  deep 
winter  snows  of  the  Sierras  do  not  hiu-t  it.  The  young  trees  bear 
abundant  limbs  covering  the  trunks  nearly  or  quite  to  the  ground,  and 
are  of  perfect  conical  shape.  When  they  are  ten  or  fifteen  feet  tall  they 
may  be  entirely  covered  in  snow  which  accumulates  to  a  depth  of  a 
dozen  feet  or  more.  The  little  pines  are  seldom  injm-ed  by  the  load,  but 
their  limbs  shed  the  snow  until  it  covers  the  highest  twig.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  a  crooked  sugar  pine  trunk  is  seldom  seen,  though  a 
considerable  part  of  the  tree's  youth  may  have  been  spent  under  tons 
of  snow.  Later  in  life  the  lower  limbs  die  and  drop,  leaving  clean  boles 
which  assure  abundance  of  clear  lumber  in  the  years  to  come. 

The  tree  is  nearly  always  known  as  sugar  pine,  though  it  may  be 
called  big  pine  or  great  pine  to  distinguish  it  from  firs,  cedars,  and  other 
softwoods  with  which  it  is  associated.  The  name  is  due  to  a  product 
resembling  sugar  which  exudes  from  the  heartwood  when  the  tree  has 
been  injured  by  fires,  and  which  dries  in  white,  brittle  excrescences  on 
the  surface.  Its  taste  is  sweet,  with  a  suggestion  of  pitch  which  is 
not  unpleasant.     The  principle  has  been  named  "pinite." 

The  needles  of  sugar  pine  are  in  clusters  of  five  and  are  about  foiur 
inches  long.  They  are  deciduous  the  second  and  third  years.  The 
cones  are  longer  than  cones  of  any  other  pine  of  this  country  but  those 
of  the  Coulter  pine  are  a  little  heavier.  Extreme  length  of  22  inches  for 
the  sugar  pine  cone  has  been  recorded,  but  the  average  is  from  12  to  15 
inches.    Cones  open,  shed  their  seeds  the  second  year,  and  fall  the  third. 


32  American  Forest  Trees 

The  seeds  resemble  lentils,  and  are  provided  with  wings  which  carry 
them  several  hundred  feet,  if  wind  is  favorable.  This  affords  excellent 
opportunities  for  reproduction ;  but  there  is  an  offset  in  the  sweetness  of 
the  seeds  which  are  prized  for  food  by  birds,  beasts  and  creeping  things 
from  the  Piute  Indian  down  to  the  Douglas  squirrel  and  the  jumping 
mouse. 

Sugar  pine  occupies  a  high  place  as  a  timber  tree.  It  has  been  in 
use  for  half  a  century.  The  cut  in  1900  was  52,000,000  feet,  in  1904  it 
was  120,000,000;  in  1907,  115,000,000,  and  the  next  year  about  100,000,- 
000.  Ninety-three  per  cent  of  the  cut  is  in  California,  the  rest  in  Oregon. 
Its  stand  in  California  has  been  estimated  at  25,000,000,000  feet. 

The  wood  of  sugar  pine  is  a  little  lighter  than  eastern  white  pine, 
is  a  little  weaker,  and  has  less  stiffness.  It  is  soft,  the  rings  of  growth 
are  wide,  the  bands  of  summerwood  thin  and  resinous;  the  resin  passages 
are  numerous  and  very  large,  the  medullary  rays  numerous  and  obscure. 
The  heart  is  light  brown,  the  sapwood  nearly  white. 

Sugar  pine  and  redwood  were  the  two  early  roofing  woods  in 
California,  and  both  are  still  much  used  for  that  purpose.  Sugar  pine 
was  made  into  sawed  shingles  and  split  shakes.  The  shingle  is  a  mill 
product;  but  the  shake  was  rived  with  mallet  and  frow,  and  in  the  years 
when  it  was  the  great  roofing  material  in  central  and  eastern  California, 
the  shake  makers  camped  by  twos  in  the  forest,  lived  principally  on 
bacon  and  red  beans,  and  split  out  from  200,000  to  400,000  shakes  as  a 
summer's  work.  The  winter  snows  drove  the  workers  from  the  moun- 
tains, with  from  eight  to  twelve  hundred  dollars  in  their  pockets  for  the 
season's  work. 

The  increase  in  stumpage  price  has  practically  killed  the  shake 
maker's  business.  In  the  palmy  days  when  most  everything  went,  he 
procured  his  timber  for  little  or  nothing.  He  sometimes  failed  to  find 
the  surveyor's  lines,  particularly  if  there  happened  to  be  a  fine  sugar  pine 
just  across  on  a  government  quarter  section.  His  method  of  operation 
was  wastful.  He  used  only  the  best  of  the  tree.  If  the  grain  happened 
to  twist  the  fraction  of  an  inch,  he  abandoned  the  fallen  trunk,  and  cut 
another.  The  shakes  were  split  very  thin,  for  sugar  pine  is  among  the 
most  cleavable  woods  of  this  country.  Foiur  or  five  good  trees  provided 
the  shake  maker's  camp  with  material  for  a  year's  work. 

Some  of  the  earliest  sawmills  in  California  cut  sugar  pine  for  sheds, 
shacks,  sluiceboxes,  flumes  among  the  mines;  and  almost  immediately 
a  demand  came  from  the  agricultural  and  stock  districts  for  lumber. 
From  that  day  until  the  present  time  the  sugar  pine  mills  have  been 
busy.  As  the  demand  has  grown,  the  facilities  for  meeting  it  have 
increased.     The  prevailing  size  of  the  timber  forbade  the  use  of  small 


American  Forest  Trees  33 

mills.  A  saw  large  enough  for  most  eastern  and  southern  timbers  would 
not  slab  a  sugar  pine  log.  From  four  to  six  feet  were  common  sizes, 
and  the  lumberman  despised  anything  small. 

In  late  years  sugar  pine  operators  have  looked  beyond  the  local 
markets,  and  have  been  sending  their  lumber  to  practically  every  state 
in  the  Union,  except  probably  the  extreme  South.  It  comes  in  direct 
competition  with  the  white  pine  of  New  England  and  the  Lake  States. 
The  two  woods  have  many  points  of  resemblance.  The  white  pine 
would  probably  have  lost  no  markets  to  the  California  wood  if  the  best 
grades  could  still  be  had  at  moderate  prices;  but  most  of  the  white  pine 
region  has  been  stripped  of  its  best  timber,  and  the  resulting  scarcity  in 
the  high  grades  has  been,  in  part,  made  good  by  sugar  pine.  Some 
manufactiurers  of  doors  and  frames  claim  that  sugar  pine  is  more  satis- 
factory than  white  pine,  because  of  better  behavior  under  climatic 
changes.    It  is  said  to  shrink,  swell,  and  warp  less  than  the  eastern  wood. 

Sugar  pine  has  displaced  white  pine  to  a  very  small  extent  only,  in 
comparison  with  the  field  still  held  by  the  eastern  wood,  whose  annual 
output  is  about  thirty  times  that  of  the  California  species.  Their  uses 
are  practically  the  same  except  that  only  the  good  grades  of  sugar  pine 
go  east,  and  the  corresponding  grades  of  white  pine  west,  and  therefore 
there  is  no  competition  between  the  poor  grades  of  the  two  woods.  The 
annual  demand  for  sugar  and  white  pine  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
is  probably  represented  as  an  average  in  Illinois,  where  2,000,000  feet  of 
the  former  and  175,000,000  of  the  latter  are  used  yearly. 

While  there  is  a  large  amount  of  mature  sugar  pine  ready  for 
lumbermen,  the  prospect  of  future  supplies  from  new  growth  is  not 
entirely  satisfactory.  The  western  yellow  pine  is  mixed  with  it  through- 
out most  of  its  range,  and  is  more  than  a  match  for  it  in  taking  possession 
of  vacant  ground.  It  is  inferred  from  this  fact  that  the  relative  positions 
of  the  two  species  in  future  forests  will  change  at  the  expense  of  sugar 
pine.  It  endures  shade  when  small,  and  this  enables  it  to  obtain  a  start 
among  other  species;  but  as  it  increases  in  size  it  becomes  intolerant  of 
shade,  and  if  it  does  not  receive  abundance  of  light  it  will  not  grow.  A 
forest  fire  is  nearly  certain  to  kill  the  small  sugar  pines,  but  old  trunks 
are  protected  by  their  thick  bark.  Few  species  have  fewer  natural 
enemies.  Very  small  trees  are  occasionally  attacked  by  mistletoe 
{Arceuthobium  occideniale)  and  succumb  or  else  are  stunted  in  their 
growth. 

Mexican  Pinon  (Pinus  cembroides)  is  known  also  as  nut  pine,  pinon  pine 
and  stone-seed  Mexican  pinon.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  native  pines  of  this 
country.  The  tree  is  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high  and  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  but 
in  sheltered  canyons  in  Arizona  it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  with 


34  American  Forest  Trees 

a  corresponding  diameter.  It  reaches  its  best  development  in  northern  Mexico  and 
what  is  found  of  it  in  the  United  States  is  the  species'  extreme  northern  extension,  in 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  at  altitudes  usually  above  6,000  feet.  It  supplies  fuel  in 
districts  where  firewood  is  otherwise  scarce,  and  it  has  a  small  place  as  ranch  timber. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  of  slow  growth,  the  summerwood  thin  and  dense.  The  resin 
passages  are  few  and  small ;  color,  light,  clear  yellow,  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  If 
the  tree  stood  in  regions  well-forested  with  commercial  species,  it  would  possess  little 
or  no  value;  but  where  wood  is  scarce,  it  has  considerable  value.  The  hardshell  nuts 
resemble  those  of  the  gray  pine,  but  are  considered  more  valuable  for  food.  They  are 
not  of  much  importance  in  the  United  States,  but  in  Mexico  where  the  trees  are  more 
abundant  and  the  population  denser,  the  nuts  are  bought  and  sold  in  large  quantities. 
Its  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  three,  sometimes  two.  They  are  one  inch  or  more  in 
length,  and  fall  the  third  and  fourth  years.  Cones  are  seldom  over  two  inches  in 
length.  The  species  is  not  extending  its  range,  but  seems  to  be  holding  the  ground  it 
already  has.  It  bears  abundance  of  seeds,  but  not  one  in  ten  thousand  germinates 
and  becomes  a  mature  tree. 


WHITEBARK  PINE 


WHITEBARK  PINE 

(Pinus  AlbicauHs) 

THIS  interesting  and  peculiar  pine  has  a  number  of  names,  most  of 
which  are  descriptive.  The  whiteness  of  the  bark  and  the 
stunted  and  recumbent  position  which  the  tree  assumes  on  bleak 
moimtains  are  referred  to  in  the  names  whitestem  pine  in  California  and 
Montana,  scrub  pine  in  Montana,  whitebark  in  Oregon,  white  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  elsewhere  it  is  creeping  pine,  whitebark  pine,  and  alpine 
whitebark  pine.  It  is  a  mountain  tree.  There  are  few  heights  within  its 
range  which  it  cannot  reach.  Its  tough,  prostrate  branches,  in  its 
loftiest  situations,  may  whip  snow  banks  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year, 
and  for  the  two  or  three  months  of  summer  every  starry  night  deposits 
its  sprinkle  of  frost  upon  the  flowers  or  cones  of  this  persistent  tree.  It 
stands  the  storms  of  centuries,  and  lives  on,  though  the  whole  period  of 
its  existence  is  a  battle  for  life  under  adverse  circumstances.  At  lower 
altitudes  it  fares  better  but  does  not  live  longer  than  on  the  most  sterile 
peak.  Its  range  covers  500,000  square  miles,  but  only  in  scattered 
groups.  It  touches  the  high  places  only,  creeping  down  to  altitudes  of 
5,000  or  6,000  feet  in  the  northern  Rocky  Mountains.  It  grows  from 
British  Columbia  to  southern  California,  and  is  found  in  Montana,  Idaho, 
Washington,  Oregon,  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  California.  Its  associates 
are  the  mountain  climbers  of  the  tree  kingdom,  Engelmann  spruce,  Lyall 
larch,  limber  pine,  alpine  fir,  foxtail  pine,  Rocky  Mountain  juniper, 
knobcone  pine,  and  western  juniper.  Its  dark  green  needles,  stout  and 
rigid,  are  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  inches  long.  They 
hang  on  the  twigs  from  five  to  eight  years.  In  July  the  scarlet  flowers 
appear,  forming  a  beautiful  contrast  with  the  white  bark  and  the  green 
needles.  In  August  the  seeds  are  ripe.  The  cones  are  from  one  and 
one-half  to  three  inches  long.  The  seeds  are  nearly  half  an  inch  long, 
sweet  to  the  taste.  The  few  squirrels  and  bu-ds  which  inhabit  the 
inhospitable  region  where  the  whitebark  pine  grows,  get  busy  the 
moment  the  cones  open,  and  few  escape.  Nature  seems  to  have  played 
a  prank  on  this  pine  by  giving  wings  to  the  seeds  and  rendering  their  use 
impossible.  The  wing  is  stuck  fast  with  resin  to  the  cone  scales,  and  the 
seed  can  escape  only  by  tearing  its  wing  ofif.  The  heavy  nut  then  falls 
plumb  to  the  ground  beneath  the  branches  of  its  parent.  It  might  be 
supposed  that  a  tree  situated  as  the  whitebark  pine  is  would  be  provided 
with  ample  means  of  seedflight  in  order  to  afiford  wide  distribution,  and 
give  opportunity  to  survive  the  hardships  which  are  imposed  by  sur- 
roundings; but  such  is  not  the  case.     The  willow  and  the  cotton  wood 


38  American  Forest  Trees 

which  grow  in  fertile  valleys  have  the  means  of  scattering  their  seeds 
miles  away;  but  this  bleak  mountain  tree  must  drop  its  seeds  on  the 
rocks  beneath.  In  this  instance,  nature  seems  more  interested  in 
depositing  the  pine  nuts  where  the  hungry  squirrels  can  get  them,  than 
in  furnishing  a  planting  place  for  the  nuts  themselves — therefore,  tears 
off  their  wings  before  they  leave  the  cone.  The  battle  for  existence 
begins  before  the  seeds  germinate,  and  the  struggle  never  ceases.  The 
tree,  in  parts  of  its  range,  survives  a  temperature  sixty  degrees  below 
zero.  Its  seedlings  frequently  perish,  not  from  cold  and  drought,  but  be- 
cause the  wind  thrashes  them  against  the  rocks  which  wear  them  to  pieces. 
Trees  which  sturvive  on  the  great  heights  are  apt  to  assume  strange  and 
fantastic  forms,  with  less  resemblance  to  trees  than  to  great,  green 
spiders  sprawling  over  the  rocks.  Trees  500  years  old  may  not  be  five 
feet  high.  Deep  snows  hold  them  flat  to  the  rocks  so  much  of  the  time 
that  the  limbs  cannot  lift  themselves  during  the  few  summer  days,  but 
grow  like  vines.  The  growth  is  so  exceedingly  slow  that  the  new  wood 
on  the  tips  of  twigs  at  the  end  of  summer  is  a  mere  point  of  yellow. 
John  Muir,  with  a  magnifying  glass,  counted  seventy-five  annual  rings 
in  a  twig  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Trunks  three  and  one- 
half  inches  in  diameter  may  be  225  years  old ;  one  of  six  inches  had  426 
rings;  while  a  seventeen-inch  trunk  was  800  years  old,  and  less  than  six 
feet  high.  Such  a  tree  has  a  spread  of  branches  thirty  or  forty  feet 
across.  They  lie  flat  on  the  ground.  Wild  sheep,  deer,  bear,  and 
other  wild  animals  know  how  to  shelter  themselves  beneath  the  prostrate 
branches  by  creeping  under;  and  travelers,  overtaken  by  storms,  some- 
times do  the  same;  or  in  good  weather  the  sheepherder  or  the  hunter 
may  spread  his  blankets  on  the  mass  of  limbs,  boughs,  and  needles,  and 
spend  a  comfortable  night  on  a  springy  couch — actually  sleeping  in  a 
tree  top  within  two  feet  of  the  ground.  In  regions  lower  down,  the 
whitebark  pine  reaches  respectable  tree  form.  Fence  posts  are  some- 
times cut  from  it  in  the  Mono  basin,  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains. In  the  Nez  Perce  National  Forest  trees  forty  feet  high  have  mer- 
chantable lengths  of  twenty-four  feet.  Similar  growth  is  found  in  other 
regions.  In  its  best  growth,  the  wood  of  whitebark  pine  resembles  that 
of  white  pine.  It  is  light,  of  about  the  same  strength  as  white  pine,  but 
more  brittle.  The  annual  rings  are  very  narrow;  the  small  resin  pas- 
sages are  numerous.  The  sapwood  is  very  thin  and  is  nearly  white. 
Men  can  never  greatly  assist  or  hinder  this  tree.  It  will  continue  to 
occupy  heights  and  elevated  valleys. 

Bristlecone  Pine  (Pimis  aristata)  owes  its  name  to  the  sharp 
bristles  on  the  tips  of  the  cone  scales.  It  is  known  also  as  foxtail  pine 
and  hickory  pine.     The  latter  name  is  given,  not  because  of  toughness, 


American  Forest  Trees  39 

but  on  account  of  the  whiteness  of  the  sapwood.  It  is  strictly  a  high 
mountain  tree,  running  up  to  the  timber  Hne  at  12,000  feet,  and  seldom 
occurring  below  6,000  or  7,000  feet.  It  maintains  its  existence  under 
adverse  circumstances,  its  home  being  on  dry,  stony  ridges,  cold  and 
stormy  in  winter,  and  subject  to  excessive  drought  during  the  brief 
growing  season.  Trees  of  large  trunks  and  fine  forms  are  impossible 
under  such  conditions.  The  bristlecone  pine's  bole  is  short,  tapers 
rapidly  and  is  excessively  knotty.  The  species  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment in  Colorado.  Though  it  is  seldom  sawed  for  lumber,  it  is  of  much 
importance  in  many  localities  where  better  material  is  scarce.  In  central 
Nevada  many  valuable  mines  were  developed  and  worked  by  using  the 
wood  for  props  and  fuel.  Charcoal  made  of  it  was  particularly  important 
in  that  region,  and  it  was  carried  long  distances  to  supply  blacksmith 
shops  in  mining  camps.  Railways  have  made  some  use  of  it  for  ties. 
Though  rough,  it  is  liked  for  fence  posts.  The  resin  in  the  wood  assists 
in  resisting  decay,  and  posts  last  many  years  in  the  dry  regions  where 
the  tree  grows.  Ranchmen  among  the  high  mountains  build  corrals, 
pens,  sheds,  and  fences  of  it;  but  the  fibers  of  the  wood  are  so  twisted 
and  involved  that  splitting  is  nearly  impossible,  and  round  timbers 
only  are  employed.  The  bristlecone  pine  can  never  be  more  important 
in  the  country's  lumber  supply  than  it  is  now.  It  occupies  waste  land 
where  no  other  tree  grows,  and  it  crowds  out  nothing  better  than  itself. 
It  clings  to  stony  peaks  and  wind-swept  ridges  where  the  ungainly 
trunks  are  welcome  to  the  traveler,  miner,  or  sheepherder  who  is  in 
need  of  a  shed  to  shelter  him,  or  a  fire  for  his  night  camp.  In  situations 
exposed  to  great  cold  and  drying  winds,  the  bristlecone  pine  is  a  shrub, 
with  little  suggestion  of  a  tree,  further  than  its  green  foliage  and  small 
cones.  The  needles  are  in  clusters  of  five.  They  cling  to  the  twigs  for 
ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  seeds  are  scattered  about  the  first  of  October, 
and  the  wind  carries  them  hundreds  of  feet.  They  take  root  in  soil  so 
sterile  that  no  humus  is  visible.  Young  trees  and  the  small  twigs  of  old 
ones  present  a  peculiar  appearance.  The  bark  is  chalky  white,  but  when 
the  trees  are  old  the  bark  becomes  red  or  brown. 

Foxtail  PiviEiPinus  half ouriana) owes  its  name  to  the  clustering  of  its  needles 
round  the  ends  of  the  branches,  bristling  like  a  fox's  tail.  The  needles  are  seldom 
more  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  and  are  in  clusters  of  fives.  They 
cling  to  the  branches  ten  or  fifteen  years  before  falling.  The  cones  are  about  three 
inches  long,  and  are  armed  with  slender  spines.  The  tree  is  strictly  a  mountain  species 
and  grows  at  a  higher  altitude  than  any  other  tree  in  the  United  States,  although 
whitebark  pine  is  not  much  behind  it.  It  reaches  its  best  development  near  Mt. 
Whitney,  California,  where  it  is  said  to  grow  at  an  altitude  of  15,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  It  has  been  officially  reported  at  Farewell  Gap,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains, at  an  altitude  of  13,000.     At  high  altitudes  it  is  scrubby  and  distorted,  but  in 


40  American  Forest  Trees 

more  favorable  situations  it  may  be  sixty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter.  On  high 
mountains  it  is  generally  not  more  than  thirty  feet  high  and  ten  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  of  remarkably  slow  growth,  and  comparatively  small  trees  may  be  200  or  300 
years  old.  The  wood  is  moderately  light,  is  soft,  weak,  brittle.  Resin  passages  are 
few  and  very  small.  The  wood  is  satiny  and  susceptible  of  a  good  polish,  and  would 
be  valuable  if  abundant.  The  seeds  are  winged  and  the  wind  scatters  them  widely, 
but  most  of  them  are  lost  on  barren  rocks  or  drifts  of  eternal  snow.  The  untoward 
circumstances  under  which  the  tree  must  live  prevent  generous  reproduction.  It 
holds  its  own  but  can  gain  no  new  foothold  on  the  bleak  and  barren  heights  which 
form  its  environment.  The  dark  green  of  its  foliage  makes  the  belts  of  foxtail  pines 
conspicuous  where  they  grow  above  the  timber  line  of  nearly  all  other  trees.  Its 
range  is  confined  to  a  few  of  the  highest  mountains  of  California,  particularly  about 
(but  not  on)  Mt.  Shasta  and  among  the  clusters  of  peaks  about  the  sources  of  Kings 
and  Kern  rivers.  Those  who  travel  and  camp  among  the  highest  mountains  of 
California  are  often  indebted  to  foxtail  pine  for  their  fuel.  Near  the  upper  limit  of  its 
range  it  frequently  dies  at  the  top,  and  stands  stripped  of  bark  for  many  years.  The 
dead  wood,  which  frequently  is  not  higher  above  the  ground  than  a  man's  head,  is 
broken  away  by  campers  for  fuel,  and  it  is  often  the  only  resource. 


LONGLEAF  PINE 


LONGLEAF  PINE 

{Pinus  Palustris) 

LONGLEAF  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  most  important  member 
of  the  group  of  hard  or  pitch  pines  in  this  country*.  It  is  known 
by  many  names  in  different  parts  of  its  range,  and  outside  of  its 
range  where  the  wood  is  well  known. 

The  names  southern  pine,  Georgia  pine,  and  Florida  pine  are  not 
well  chosen,  because  there  are  other  important  pines  in  the  regions 
named.  Tiu-pentine  pine  is  a  common  term,  but  other  species  produce 
turpentine  also,  particularly  the  Cuban  pine.  Hard  pine  is  much 
employed  in  reference  to  this  tree,  and  it  applies  well,  but  it  describes 
other  species  also.  Heart  pine  is  a  lumberman's  term  to  distinguish 
this  species  from  loblolly,  shortleaf,  and  Cuban  pines.  The  sapwood 
of  the  three  last  named  is  thick,  the  heartwood  small,  while  in  longleaf 
pine  the  sap  is  thin,  the  heart  large,  hence  the  name  applied  by  lumber- 
men. In  Tennessee  where  it  is  not  a  commercial  forest  tree,  it  is  called 
brown  pine,  and  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  it  is  spoken  of  as 
yellow  pine,  usually  with  some  adjective  as  "southern,"  "Georgia,"  or 
"longleaf."  The  persistency  with  which  Georgia  is  used  as  a  portion  of 
the  name  of  this  tree  is  due  to  the  fact  that  extensive  lumbering  of  the 
longleaf  forests  began  in  that  state.  The  center  of  operations  has  since 
shifted  to  the  West,  and  is  now  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  The 
tree  has  many  other  names,  among  them  being  pitch  pine  and  fat  pine. 
These  have  reference  to  its  value  in  the  naval  stores  industry.  The  name 
longleaf  pine  is  now  well  established  in  commercial  transactions.  It 
has  longer  leaves  than  any  other  pine  in  this  country.  They  range  in 
length  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches.  The  needles  of  Cuban  pine  are 
from  eight  to  twelve  inches ;  loblolly's  are  from  six  to  nine ;  and  those 
of  shortleaf  from  three  to  five. 

Longleaf  pine's  geographic  range  is  more  restricted  than  that  of 


*There  is  no  precise  agreement  as  to  what  should  be  included  in  the  group  of 
hard  pines  in  the  United  States,  but  the  following  twenty-two  are  usually  placed  in 
that  class :  Longleaf  Pine  (Pinus  palustris) ,  Shortleaf  Pine  {Pinus  echinata) ,  Loblolly 
Pine  (PiwMi  teda),  Cuban  Pine  (P»!mj  heterophylla),  Norway  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa). 
Western  Yellow  Pine  (Pinus  ponderosa),  Chihuahua  Pine  (Pinus  chikuakuana) , 
Arizona  Pine  (Pinus  arizonica).  Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida).  Pond  Pine  (Pinus 
serolina).  Spruce  Pine  (Pinus  glabra),  Monterey  Pine  (Pinus  radiata),  Knobcone 
Pine  (Pinus  aitenuata).  Gray  Pine  (Pinus  sabiniana),  Coulter  Pine  (Pinus  couUeri), 
Lodgepole  Pine  (Pinus  contorta).  Jack  Pine  (Pinus  divaricata),  Scrub  Pine 
(Pinus  inrginiana).  Sand  Vine  (Pinus  clausa),  t3.h\e  Mountain  Vine  (Pinus  pungens) 
Cahfornia  Swamp  Pine  (Pinus  muricata),  Torry  Pine  (Pinus  torreyana.) 


44  American  Forest  Trees 

loblolly  and  shortleaf.but  larger  than  the  range  of  Cuban  pine.  Longleaf 
occupies  a  belt  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  following  the  tertiary  sandy 
formation  pretty  closely.  The  belt  seldom  extends  from  the  coast 
inland  more  than  125  miles.  The  tree  runs  south  in  Florida  to  Tampa 
bay.  It  disappears  as  it  approaches  the  Mississippi,  but  reappears 
west  of  that  river  in  Louisiana  and  Texas.  Its  western  limit  is  near 
Trinity  river,  and  its  northern  in  that  region  is  near  the  boundary 
between  Louisiana  and  Arkansas. 

Longleaf  attains  a  height  of  from  sixty  to  ninety  feet,  but  a  few 
trees  reach  130.  The  diameters  of  matiire  trunks  range  from  one  foot 
to  three,  usually  less  than  two.  The  leaves  grow  three  in  a  bundle,  and 
fall  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.  They  are  arranged  in  thick,  broom- 
like bunches  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs.  It  is  a  tree  of  slow  growth  com- 
pared with  other  pines  of  the  region.  Its  characteristic  narrow  annual 
rings  are  usually  sufficient  to  distinguish  its  logs  and  lumber  from  those 
of  other  southern  yellow  pines.  Its  thin  sap,/ood  likewise  assists  in 
identification.  The  proportionately  high  percentage  of  heartwood  in 
longleaf  pine  makes  it  possible  to  saw  lumber  which  shows  little  or 
no  sapwood.     It  is  difficult  to  do  that  with  other  southern  pines. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  exceedingly  har^ '.  for  pine,  very  strong,  tough, 
compact,  dinable,  resinous,  resin  passages  few,  not  conspicuous; 
medullary  rays  numerous,  not  conspicuous;  color,  light  red  or  orange, 
the  thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  The  annual  rings  contain  a  large  propor- 
tion of  dark  colored  summerwood,  which  accounts  for  the  great  strength 
of  longleaf  pine  timber.  The  contrast  in  color  between  the  springwood 
and  the  sumimerwood  is  the  basis  of  the  figure  of  this  pine  which  gives  it 
much  of  its  value  as  an  interior  finish  material,  including  doors.  The 
hardness  of  the  summerwood  provides  the  wearing  qualities  of  flooring 
and  paving  blocks.  The  coloring  matter  in  the  body  of  the  wood  protects 
it  against  decay  for  a  longer  period  than  most  other  pines.  This, 
in  connection  with  its  hardness  and  strength,  gives  it  high  standing  for 
railroad  ties,  bridges,  trestles,  and  other  structures  exposed  to  weather. 

Longleaf  pine  is  as  widely  used  as  any  softwood  in  this  country. 
It  serves  with  hardwoods  for  a  number  of  pinposes.  It  has  been  a 
timber  of  commerce  since  an  early  period,  and  was  exported  from  the 
south  Atlantic  coast  long  before  the  Revolutionary  war;  but  it  was 
later  than  that  when  it  came  into  keen  competition  with  the  Riga 
pine  of  northern  Europe.  It  has  since  held  its  own  in  the  European 
markets,  and  its  trade  has  extended  to  many  other  foreign  countries, 
particularly  to  the  republics  of  South  and  Central  America,  Mexico, 
and  the  West  Indies. 

It  did  not  attain  an  important  position  in  the  commerce  of  this 


American  Forest  Trees  45 

country  until  after  the  Civil  war,  but  it  had  a  place  in  shipbuilding  before 
that  time,  and  it  has  held  that  place.  The  builders  of  cars  employ  large 
quantities  for  frames  and  other  parts  of  gondolas,  box  cars,  and  coaches. 
Over  175,000,000  feet  were  so  used  in  1909  in  Illinois.  It  is  the  leading 
car  building  timber  in  this  country.  Its  great  strength,  hardness,  and 
stiffness  give  it  that  place. 

It  is  scarcely  less  important  as  an  interior  wood  for  house  finish. 
It  is  not  so  much  its  strength  as  its  beauty  that  recommends  it  for  that 
purpose.  Its  beauty  is  due  to  a  combination  of  figm-e  and  color. 
Splendid  variety  is  possible  by  carefully  selecting  the  material.  Manu- 
facturers of  furniture,  fixtures,  and  vehicles  are  large  users  of  longleaf 
pine.     In  these  lines  its  chief  value  is  due  to  strength. 

In  the  naval  stores  industry  in  this  country,  it  is  more  important 
than  all  other  species  combined.  For  a  century  and  a  half  it  has  sup- 
plied this  country  and  much  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  principal 
commodities  made  from  the  resin  of  this  tree  are  spirits  of  tiurpentine 
and  rosin.  These  two  articles  are  produced  by  distilling  the  resin  which 
exudes  from  wounds  in  the  tree.  The  distillate  is  spirits  of  tiupentine, 
the  residue  is  rosin.  The  manufacture  of  naval  stores  has  destroyed 
tens  of  thousands  of  trees  in  the  past;  but  better  methods  are  now  in 
use  and  loss  is  less.  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  were  once  the  center  of 
naval  stores  production;  but  it  has  now  moved  to  Louisiana  and 
Florida. 

The  supply  of  longleaf  pine  has  rapidly  decreased  during  the  past 
twenty  years,  and  though  the  end  is  not  yet  at  hand,  it  is  approaching. 
Young  trees  are  not  coming  on  to  take  the  place  of  those  cut  for  lumber. 
They  grow  slowly  at  best,  and  a  new  forest  could  not  be  produced  in  less 
than  a  hundred  years.  Both  protection  and  care  have  been  lacking. 
Fire  usually  kills  seedlings  in  their  first  or  second  year.  The  result  is 
that  many  extensive  tracts  where  longleaf  pine  once  grew  in  abundance 
have  few  young  and  scarcely  any  old  trees  now.  As  far  as  can  be 
foreseen,  this  valuable  timber  will  reach  its  end  when  existing  stands 
have  been  cut. 

Cuban  Pine  {Pinus  heterophylla).  The  Cuban  pine  has  several 
local  names;  slash  pine  in  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi; 
swamp  pine  in  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi  ;  meadow  pine  in 
Florida  and  Mississippi;  pitch  pine  in  Florida;  and  spruce  pine  in  Ala- 
bama. Its  range  is  confined  to  the  coast  region  from  South  Carolina  to 
Louisiana,  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  miles  inland.  It  is  the  only  pine 
in  the  extreme  south  of  Florida.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  very  strong, 
tough,  compact,  diu^able,  resinous,  the  resin  passages  few  but  conspicu- 
ous, rich  dark  orange  color,  the  sapwood  often  nearly  white.    The  annual 


46  American  Forest  Trees 

ring  is  usually  more  than  half  dark  colored  summerwood.  The  Cuban 
pine  grows  rapidly,  quickly  appropriates  vacant  ground,  and  the  species 
is  spreading.  Its  needles,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  fall  the  sec- 
ond year.  The  wood  possesses  nearly  the  strength,  hardness,  and  stiffness 
of  longleaf  pine,  and  the  trunks  are  as  large.  The  two  woods  which  are  so 
similar  in  other  respects  differ  in  figure,  owing  to  the  wider  annual  rings 
of  the  Cuban  pine.  The  sapwood  of  the  latter  species  greatly  exceeds  in 
thickness  that  of  longleaf  pine.  For  that  reason  it  is  often  mistaken  for 
loblolly  pine.  Cuban  pine  never  goes  to  market  under  its  own  name, 
but  is  mixed  with  and  passes  for  one  of  the  other  southern  yellow  pines. 
Sand  Pine  (Pinus  clausa).  This  tree  is  generally  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  high,  and  eight  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions it  attains  a  height  of  sixty  or  eighty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two. 
The  leaves  are  two  or  three  inches  long,  and  fall  the  third  and  foiu-th 
years.  Its  range  is  almost  wholly  in  Florida  but  extends  a  little  over  the 
northern  border.  It  grows  as  far  south  as  Tampa  on  the  west  coast,  and 
nearly  to  Miami  on  the  east.  It  is  not  much  cut  for  lumber  because  of 
its  small  size  and  generally  short,  limby  trunk.  In  a  few  localities 
shapely  boles  are  developed,  and  serviceable  lumber  is  made.  It  is  a 
poor-land  tree,  as  its  name  implies.  The  cones  adhere  to  the  branches 
many  years,  and  may  be  partly  enclosed  in  the  growing  wood. 


SHORTLEAF  PINE 


SHORTLEAF  PINE 

(Pinus  Echinata) 

IN  the  markets  the  lumber  of  this  species  is  known  as  yellow  pine, 
southern  yellow  pine,  and  sap  pine,  and  in  some  localities  the  term 
shortleaf  is  used.  The  latter  is  descriptive,  and  can  be  easily  understood 
when  reference  is  made  to  the  living  tree,  because  its  short  needles 
distinguish  it  from  its  associates  in  the  pine  forest ;  but  in  speaking  of 
lumber  only,  the  reference  to  the  leaves  has  less  meaning,  particularly 
to  one  who  is  not  acquainted  with  the  tree's  appearance.  Its  wood  so 
closely  resembles  that  of  Cuban  and  loblolly  pine  that  they  are  not 
easily  distinguished  by  sight  alone.  In  the  East  the  name  Carolina  pine 
or  North  Carolina  pine  is  much  used,  but  it  is  not  often  heard  west  of  the 
Allegheny  mountains.  Referring  to  the  manner  and  locality  of  its 
growth  it  is  called  slash  pine  in  North  Carolina  and  Virginia,  old-field 
pine  in  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  poor-field  pine  in  Florida.  Its 
tendency  to  take  possession  of  abandoned  ground  has  given  it  these 
names.  It  is  occasionally  called  pitch  pine  in  Missouri.  That  name 
would  not  distinguish  it  in  most  parts  of  the  South  where  several  species 
of  pitch  pine  grow.  In  some  regions  it  is  known  as  spruce  pine,  but  the 
name  is  not  based  on  any  characteristic  of  the  living  tree  or  of  its  wood. 
In  North  Carolina  and  Alabama,  and  in  literature,  it  is  sometimes  known 
as  rosemary  pine,  but  that  name  applies  rather  to  fine  timber  cut  from 
any  southern  yellow  pine,  than  to  this  species  in  particular.  In  Delaware 
it  is  known  as  shortshat  and  in  Virginia  as  bull  pine.  To  those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  tree's  appearance,  the  name  shortleaf  pine  is  most 
accurate  in  definition. 

The  commercial  range  of  shortleaf  pine  has  contracted  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  since  the  settlement  of  the  country.  It  once  grew  as 
far  north  as  Albany,  New  York,  and  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  years  ago  it 
was  lumbered  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  West  Virginia  in  regions 
where  it  has  now  ceased  to  exist,  or  is  found  only  as  scattered  trees.  Its 
geographical  range  is  now  usually  given  from  New  York  to  Florida,  west 
to  Missomi  and  Oklahoma  and  northeastern  Texas.  It  is  important  in 
lumber  operations  in  North  Carolina  and  southward,  and  westward  to 
the  limits  of  its  range.  The  tree  reaches  its  largest  size  and  attains  its 
finest  stands  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  In  average  size  it  exceeds 
longleaf  pine.  It  may  reach  a  height  above  100  feet  and  a  tnmk  diam- 
eter of  three  or  four.  Squared  timbers  of  large  size  were  formerly  ex- 
ported from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  Similar  sizes  cannot  now  be 
procured  there. 


50  American  Forest  Trees 

Shortleaf  pine  varies  greatly  in  the  quality  and  amount  of  sapwood. 
It  is  normally  a  thick  sap  tree,  but  midway  between  loblolly  and  longleaf . 
The  young  tree  increases  rapidly  in  size  until  it  is  from  six  to  ten  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  yearly  rings  are  wide.  The  rate  of  growth  then 
decreases  and  during  the  rest  of  its  life  the  rings  are  narrow.  This 
featm-e  is  often  of  assistance  in  identifying  southern  yellow  pine  logs  or 
large  timbers  which  contain  the  heart  and  also  the  sap.  Wide  rings 
near  the  heart,  followed  by  narrow  ones,  and  a  thick  sapwood  are  pretty 
good  evidence  that  the  timber — if  a  southern  yellow  pine — is  shortleaf 
pine.  The  rule  is  not  absolute;  for  a  high  authority  on  timber  has  said 
that  no  infallible  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  distinguishing  by  sight  alone 
the  woods  of  the  four  southern  yellow  pines — longleaf,  shortleaf,  Cuban, 
and  loblolly. 

The  wood  of  shortleaf  pine  is  strong,  heavy,  hard,  and  compact; 
very  resinous,  resin  passages  large  and  numerous;  medullary  rays  numer- 
ous, conspicuous;  color,  orange,  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  The  thor- 
oughly seasoned  wood  weighs  thirty-eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is 
about  five  pounds  heavier  than  loblolly  pine,  five  pounds  lighter  than 
longleaf,  and  nearly  nine  pounds  lighter  than  Cuban  pine.  There  is  so 
great  a  variation  in  weight  of  shortleaf  pine  that  only  general  averages 
have  value. 

Shortleaf  pine  is  not  as  strong  as  longleaf,  and  is  not  so  extensively 
employed  in  heavy  structural  work,  but  in  certain  other  lines  it  has  the 
advantage  of  longleaf.  It  is  softer,  and  door  and  sash  makers  like  it 
better.  It  is  easier  to  work,  and  when  manufactured  into  doors  and 
interior  finish  many  consider  it  superior  to  longleaf.  The  wide  rings  of 
annual  growth  in  the  heartwood  show  fine  contrast  in  color,  and  when 
these  are  developed  by  stains  and  fillers,  the  grain  or  figiure  of  the  wood  is 
very  pleasing.  Where  hardness  is  not  an  essential,  it  is  much  used  for 
floors.  It  is  in  great  demand  by  builders  of  freight  cars,  but  less  for 
frames  and  heavy  beams  than  for  siding  and  decking.  Car  builders  in 
Illinois  bought  77,000,000  feet  of  it  in  1909.  That  was  nearly  half  of  the 
entire  quantity  of  this  wood  used  in  the  state.  The  second  largest  users 
in  Illinois  were  manufactiu^ers  of  sash,  doors,  blinds,  and  general  mill- 
work.  If  the  whole  country  is  considered,  this  is  probably  the  largest 
use  of  the  wood.  Makers  of  boxes  and  crates  in  the  South  employ  large 
quantities. 

The  depletion  of  shortleaf  forests  has  progressed  rapidly,  but  in  the 
absence  of  reliable  statistics  it  is  impossible  to  give  figures  by  decades  or 
years.  In  1880  an  estimate  placed  the  amount  west  of  the  Mississippi 
at  95,000,000,000  feet.  That  was  probably  less  than  half  of  the  country's 
supply  at  that  time.    In  1911  the  Commissioner  of  Corporations  esti- 


American  Forest  Trees  51 

mated  that  the  combined  remaining  stand  of  loblolly  and  shortleaf  pine 
in  the  South  was  152,000,000,000  feet.  It  is  doubtful  if  half  of  it  was 
shortleaf.  In  that  case,  there  was  less  shortleaf  pine  in  the  entire  South 
in  1911  than  there  was  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  thirty  years  before. 

Rapid  decrease  in  total  stand  of  a  species  does  not  necessarily 
imply  exhaustion.  The  cut  will  fall  off  as  scarcity  pinches.  In  the  case 
of  shortleaf  pine,  an  influence  is  active  which  will  bring  good  results  in 
the  futm-e.  This  pine  reproduces  with  vigor.  Its  small  triangular  seeds 
are  equipped  with  wings  which  carry  them  into  vacant  areas  where  they 
quickly  germinate  if  they  fall  on  mineral  soil.  The  seedling  trees  suffer 
much  from  fire,  but  their  power  of  resistance  is  fahly  good,  and  dense 
new  growth  is  coming  on  in  many  localities.  A  good  many  years  are 
required  to  bring  a  seedling  to  maturity,  but  it  will  reach  sawlog  size 
sometime,  and  there  is  no  question  but  that  the  market  will  welcome  it. 

The  shortleaf  pine  is  peculiar  among  eastern  softwoods  in  one 
respect.  Stumps  will  sprout.  That  occurs  oftener  west  of  the  Mississippi 
than  east.  However,  the  tree's  ability  to  send  up  sprouts  from  the 
stump  is  of  little  practical  value,  since  the  sprouts  seldom  or  never 
develop  into  merchantable  trees.  In  that  respect  it  differs  from  the 
other  well-known  sprouting  softwood  of  this  country,  the  California  red- 
wood, whose  numerous  sprouts  grow  into  large  trunks. 

Spruce  Pine  (Pinus  glabra).  This  is  one  of  the  softest  and  the 
whitest  of  the  hard  pines  of  this  country.  Nothing  but  its  scarcity 
stands  in  the  way  of  its  becoming  an  important  timber  tree.  The  best  of 
it  is  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  white  pine  in  the  manufacture  of  doors. 
It  grows  rapidly,  and  the  wide  rings  contain  a  high  percentage  of  light 
colored  springwood,  though  there  is  enough  summerwood  of  darker 
color  to  give  the  dressed  lumber  a  character.  It  weighs  about  the  same 
as  northern  white  pine,  but  is  weaker.  In  South  Carolina  and  Florida  it 
is  called  white  pine,  but  the  name  spruce  is  more  general.  It  is  known 
also  as  kingstree,  poor  pine,  Walter's  pine,  and  lowland  spruce  pine.  Its 
range  is  restricted  to  southern  South  Carolina,  northern  Florida  and 
southern  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  northeastern  Louisiana.  Its 
leaves  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  inches  in  length,  grow  two  in  a 
bundle,  and  fall  the  second  and  third  years.  Large  and  well-formed 
trunks  attain  a  height  of  from  eighty  to  100  feet  and  a  diameter  from 
two  to  nearly  three.  It  reaches  its  best  development  in  northwestern 
Florida,  and  its  light,  symmetrical  trunks  have  long  been  in  use  there  as 
masts  for  small  vessels.  It  is  too  scarce  to  attract  much  attention  from 
lumbermen,  but  they  are  well  acquainted  with  its  good  qualities,  and 
some  of  them  take  pains  to  keep  the  lumber  separate  from  associated 
pines,  and  sell  it  to  manufacturers  of  doors  and  interior  finish.    The  bark 


52  American  Forest  Trees 

bears  considerable  resemblance  to  spruce,  which  probably  accounts  for 
the  name  of  the  tree. 

Table  Mountain  Pine  (Pinus  pungens).  The  French  botanist,  Michaux 
the  younger,  has  been  criticized  for  the  statement  which  he  made  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago  that  this  species  was  confined  to  a  certain  flat-topped  mountain  in  the 
southern  Appalachian  ranges,  and  he  called  it  table  mountain  pine.  It  lacked  much 
of  being  confined  within  the  narrow  limits  where  it  was  discovered.  It  grows  in 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West  Virginia. 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  Its  other  names  are  prickly 
pine,  hickory  pine,  and  southern  mountain  pine.  It  supplies  timber  in  all  parts  of  its 
range,  but,  e.xcept  in  very  restricted  localities,  it  is  not  abundant.  The  lumber  in  the 
market  is  seldom  distinguished  from  other  pines,  but  some  of  the  Tennessee  mills  sell 
it  separately  to  local  customers.  The  wood  is  medium  light,  rather  strong  (about 
like  Pinus  rigida,  or  pitch  pine,  which  it  resembles  in  other  respects),  is  less  stiff  than 
white  pine,  and  is  resinous.  The  thick  sapwood  is  nearly  white,  the  heartwood 
brown.  It  is  not  a  durable  timber  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Its  fuel  value  is  low. 
Its  needles  grow  in  clusters  of  two,  and  are  generally  less  than  two  inches  long.  The 
cones  which  are  in  clusters  of  from  three  to  eight,  and  from  two  to  three  and  a  half 
inches  long,  are  armed  with  stout,  curved  hooks.  The  cones  shed  their  seeds  irregu- 
larly during  two  or  three  years,  and  sometimes  hang  on  the  trees  for  twenty  years. 
In  open  ground  this  pine  occasionally  produces  fertile  seeds  when  only  a  few  feet 
high.  Its  forest  form  and  open-ground  form  are  quite  different.  In  thick  woods  the 
tree  is  tall,  with  good  bole,  but  in  open  ground  it  is  only  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  and 
is  covered  with  limbs  almost  to  the  ground. 


LOBLOLLY  PINE 


LOBLOLLY  PINE 

{Pinus  Tceda) 

FEW  trees  have  more  names  than  this.  The  names,  however,  may 
be  separated  into  groups,  one  group  referring  to  the  foliage,  another 
to  the  situations  in  which  the  tree  grows,  and  a  third  to  certain  characters 
or  uses  of  the  wood.  Names  descriptive  of  the  leaves  are  longschat  pine, 
longshucks  pine,  shortleaf  pine,  foxtail  pine,  and  longstraw  pine.  The 
names  which  refer  to  locality  or  situation  are  loblolly  pine,  old-field  pine, 
slash  pine,  black  slash  pine,  Virginia  pine,  meadow  pine  and  swamp 
pine.  Names  which  refer  to  the  character  of  the  wood  or  of  the  standing 
tree  are  torch  pine,  rosemary  pine,  frankincense  pine,  cornstalk  pine, 
spruce  pine,  and  yellow  pine.  Not  one  of  these  names  is  applied  to  the 
tree  in  its  entire  range,  and  it  has  several  names  other  than  those  listed. 
Sap  pine  is  widely  applied  to  the  lumber,  because  the  tree's  sapwood  is 
very  thick,  sometimes  amounting  to  eighty  per  cent  of  a  trunk.  It  has 
borne  the  name  old-field  pine  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  in  Virginia, 
and  the  name  suggests  a  good  deal  of  history.  Some  of  the  improvident 
early  Virginia  tobacco  growers  neglected  to  fertilize  their  fields,  and  the 
land  wore  out  under  constant  cropping,  and  was  abandoned.  The  pine 
quickly  took  possession,  for  the  fields  which  were  too  far  exhausted  to 
produce  tobacco  or  com  were  amply  able  to  grow  dense  stands  of  lob- 
lolly pine,  and  the  farmers  noticing  this,  called  it  old-field  pine.  It  has 
been  taking  possession  of  abandoned  fi.elds  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina 
ever  since,  and  the  name  still  applies.  The  tree  grows  from  New  Jersey 
to  Florida,  west  to  Texas,  north  to  Oklahoma,  Tennessee,  and  West 
Virginia,  but  it  does  not  cover  the  whole  territory  thus  outlined.  It  is 
very  scarce  near  its  northern  limit.  There  is  evidence  that  the  range 
of  loblolly  has  extended  in  historic  times,  not  into  new  or  distant  regions, 
but  outside  the  borders  which  once  marked  its  range.  Since  white  men 
in  Texas  stopped  the  Indians'  grass  fires,  the  pine  has  encroached  upon 
the  prairie.  Early  writers  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  spoke  of  pine 
as  scarce  or  totally  wanting,  except  on  the  immediate  coast.  It  is  now 
found  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  miles  inland,  and  many  saw- 
mills now  cut  logs  which  have  grown  in  fields  abandoned  since  the 
Revolutionary  war.  This  has  occiured  on  the  Atlantic  coast  rather  than 
west  of  the  Appalachian  ranges  of  mountains.  Virginia  has  more 
sawmills  than  any  other  state,  and  many  of  them  are  working  on 
loblolly  pine  which  has  grown  in  the  last  hundred  years. 

The  tree  bears  seeds  abundantly  and  scatters  them  widely.     It  is 
vigorous,  grows  with  great  rapidity,  and  is  able  to  fight  its  way  if  it  finds 

55 


56  American  Forest  Trees 

conditions  in  any  way  favorable.  Turpentine  operators  have  not  found 
the  working  of  loblolly  pine  profitable,  and  this  has  relieved  it  of  a  drain 
which  has  done  much  to  deplete  the  southern  forests  of  longleaf  pine. 

Loblolly's  leaves  are  from  six  to  nine  inches  long,  and  fall  the  third 
year.  This  species,  in  common  with  other  southern  yellow  pines,  is 
disposed  to  grow  tall,  clear  trunks,  with  a  meager  supply  of  limbs  and 
foliage  at  the  top.  The  lumber  sawed  from  trunks  of  that  kind  is  clear 
of  knots.  No  other  important  forest  tree  of  the  United  States  comes  as 
nearly  being  a  cultivated  tree  as  the  loblolly  pine.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  northeastern  part  of  its  range,  in  North  Carolina,  Virginia, 
and  Maryland.  Though  nature  has  done  the  actual  planting,  men 
provided  the  seed  beds  by  giving  up  old  fields  to  that  use;  and  many  of 
the  stands  are  as  thick  and  even  as  if  they  had  been  planted  and  cared 
for  by  regular  forestry  methods.  Trees  are  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet  tall,  and  from  two  to  four  in  diameter,  some  very  old  ones  being  a 
little  larger 

The  annual  rings  of  loblolly  pine  are  broad,  with  good  contrast 
between  the  spring  and  summer  growth.  The  wood  is  light,  not  strong, 
brittle,  not  durable,  very  resinous,  the  resin  passages  are  few  and  not 
conspicuous;  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  obsciure;  color,  light 
brown,  the  thick  sapwood  orange  or  nearly  white.  When  this  tree  is  of 
slow  growth  it  is  lighter,  less  resinous,  and  has  thinner  sapwood.  It  is 
sometimes  known  as  rosemary  pine. 

The  use  of  loblolly  pine  lumber  was  greatly  stimulated  when  the 
custom  of  drying  it  in  kilns  became  general.  It  is  largely  sapwood  and 
dries  slowly  in  air.  Its  market  is  found  in  all  eastern  and  central  parts 
of  the  United  States,  and  it  is  exported  to  Europe  and  Central  and  Soiith 
America.  It  is  a  substantial  material  for  many  common  purposes  and 
its  use  is  very  large  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  quantity  it  exceeds  any 
other  species  in  the  wood-using  industries  of  Maryland,  and  all  others 
combined  in  North  Carolina.  It  is  not  as  often  employed  in  heavy 
struccural  timbers  as  longleaf  pine,  but  in  the  market  of  which  Baltimore 
is  the  center,  much  use  is  made  of  it  for  that  purpose.  It  is  ten  pounds 
a  cubic  foot  lighter  than  longleaf,  has  about  three-fourths  of  the  strength, 
and  nearly  four-fifths  of  longleaf's  elasticity.  It  is  thus  seen  to  be 
considerably  inferior  to  it  as  a  structural  timber  where  heavy  loads  must 
be  sustained ;  but  builders  use  it  for  many  purposes  in  preference  to  or  on 
an  equality  with  longleaf.  It  is  fine  for  interior  finish  and  doors.  Rail- 
roads employ  large  quantities  in  building  freight  cars,  much  for  cross- 
ties,  and  bridge  builders  find  many  places  for  it.  It  is  not  a  long  lasting 
wood  when  exposed  to  weather,  unless  it  has  been  treated  with  creosote  to 
preserve  it  from  decay.     It  is  one  of  the  most  easily  treated  woods. 


American  Forest  Trees  57 

In  North  Carolina  and  Virginia  loblolly  tobacco  hogsheads  are 
common;  and  box  factories  within  easy  reach  of  it  use  much„  A  list  of 
its  uses,  compiled  from  reports  of  factory  operations  in  Maryland,  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  range  it  covers :  Basket  bottoms,  beer  bottle  boxes, 
boats,  cart  bodies,  crates,  flooring,  frames  for  doors  and  windows,  fruit 
boxes,  interior  finish,  nail  kegs,  oyster  boxes,  seats  for  boats,  siding  for 
houses,  staves  for  slack  cooperage,  store  fixtm-es,  wagon  beds,  balusters, 
brackets,  chiffoniers,  mantels,  molding,  pictm-e  frames,  stair  railing, 
sash,  scrollwork,  sideboards,  tables. 

The  amount  of  loblolly  pine  timber  in  this  country  is  not  known. 
No  other  important  species  comes  so  near  growing  as  much  as  is  cut 
from  year  to  year.  It  covers  200,000  square  miles  with  stands  ranging 
from  little  or  nothing  in  some  parts  to  20,000  feet  per  acre  in  others,  or 
more  in  exceptional  cases.  The  area  of  fully  stocked  loblolly  pine  is 
believed  to  be  as  large  now  as  it  ever  was.  Before  the  Civil  war  it  was 
predicted  that  its  period  of  greatest  production  was  over;  but  large 
tracts  are  now  being  logged  on  which  the  pine  seeds  had  not  been  sown 
in  1860. 

Pond  Pine  (Pinus  serotina).  Sargent's  table  of  weights  of  woods 
shows  this  to  be  the  heaviest  pine  of  the  United  States;  but,  as  his 
calculations  were  made  from  a  single  sample  which  grew  in  Duval 
county,  Florida,  further  data  should  be  secured  before  his  figures, 
49.5  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  are  accepted  as  an  average  weight  for  the 
species.  It  is  rated  in  strength  about  equal  to  longleaf  and  Cuban  pine. 
Its  structure  shows  a  large  percentage  of  dense  summerwood  in  the  yearly 
ring.  The  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  three,  rarely  four,  and  are  six  or  eight 
inches  long,  and  fall  in  their  third  and  fourth  years.  The  name  suggests 
that  the  cones  are  tightly  closed,  and  that  they  adhere  tenaciously  to 
the  twigs  on  which  they  grow.  This  is  found  true.  The  principal  im- 
pression made  on  a  person  who  sees  the  pond  pine  for  the  first  time  is 
that  it  is  overloaded  with  cones,  and  that  it  must  be  a  prolific  seeder. 
Better  acquaintance  modifies  the  latter  part  of  that  impression.  It  is 
overloaded  with  cones,  but  most  of  them  are  many  years  old,  and  have 
long  been  seedless,  although  most  of  the  trees  have  the  seed  crops  of  two 
years  on  the  branches  at  one  time.  Enough  seed  is  shed  to  perpetuate 
the  species,  but  too  little  to  insure  an  aggressive  spread  into  surrounding 
vacant  ground.  The  pond  pine  may  reach  a  diameter  of  three  feet  and  a 
height  of  eighty,  but  that  is  twice  the  average  size.  The  wood  is  very 
resinous,  and  is  brittle. 

Scrub  Pine  (Pinus  virginiana).  This  tree  is  often  called  Jersey  pine  because 
it  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  landscapes  in  the  southern  part  of  that  state  where  it 
has  spread  extensively  since  the  settlement  of  the  country.     Its  short  needles  have 


58  American  Forest  Trees 

been  responsible  for  several  of  its  names,  among  them  being  shortshuck  pine  in  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  shortshat  pine  in  Delaware,  shortleaved  pine  in  North  Carolina, 
and  spruce  pine  and  cedar  pine  in  some  parts  of  the  South.  In  Tennessee  it  is  known 
as  nigger  pine,  and  in  some  parts  of  North  Carolina  as  river  pine.  The  range  is  fairly 
well  outlined  by  the  above  discussion  of  its  names.  It  grows  from  New  York  to 
South  Carolina,  and  west  of  the  mountains  it  is  found  in  northern  Alabama  and  middle 
Tennessee,  in  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  in  southern 
Indiana  where  it  is  sometimes  100  feet  high  and  three  in  diameter.  It  is  there  a 
valuable  tree  for  many  purposes,  but  is  not  abundant.  Its  average  size  is  small  in  the 
eastern  states,  usually  not  over  fifty  feet  high,  and  often  little  more  than  half  of  that. 
Few  trunks  east  of  the  Allegheny  mountains  are  more  than  eighteen  inches  in  diam- 
eter. The  name  scrub  pine  is  an  index  to  the  opinions  held  by  most  people  regarding 
this  tree.  It  is  often  considered  an  encumbrance  rather  than  an  asset;  yet  statistics 
of  wood-using  industries  hardly  justify  that  view.  Millions  of  feet  of  it  are  employed 
annually  in  each  of  the  states  of  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North  CaroUaa, 
for  boxes,  slack  cooperage,  and  common  lumber.  The  wood  is  moderately  strong,  but 
is  not  stiff.  It  is  medium  hght,  soft,  brittle,  with  summerwood  narrow  and  very 
resinous.  Its  color  is  light  orange  or  yellow,  the  thick  sapwood  ivory  white.  The 
needles  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  inches  long,  and  fall  in  the  third  and  fourth 
years.  Cones  are  two  or  three  inches  long,  and  scatter  their  seeds  in  autumn.  The 
wings  are  too  small  to  carry  the  seeds  far,  yet  the  tree  succeeds  in  quickly  spreading 
into  surrounding  vacant  spaces.  Cones  adhere  to  the  branches  three  or  four  years. 
Tar  makers  and  charcoal  burners  utilized  scrub  pine  in  New  Jersey,  northeastern 
Maryland  and  southeastern  Pennsylvania  a  century  and  a  half  ago.  The  tree  seems 
to  be  as  abundant  now  as  it  ever  was.  Unless  it  occupies  very  poor  land — which  it 
generally  does — the  growth  is  liable  to  be  suppressed  and  crowded  to  death  by  broad- 
leaf  trees  before  the  stands  become  very  old.  As  a  species,  it  is  weak  in  self-defense, 
and  it  owes  its  survival  to  its  habit  of  retreating  to  poor  soils  where  enemies  cannot 
follow.  It  may  be  said  of  it  as  the  Roman  historian  Tacitus  said  of  certain  men: 
"The  cowards  fly  the  farthest,  and  are  the  longest  survivors." 


NORWAY  PINE 


f 

^^^y 

|mHH^^^3;  / '[  W, 

L| 

iiL^IE 

Norway  Pine 

NORWAY  PINE 

(Pinus  Resinosa) 

EARLY  explorers  who  were  not  botanists  mistook  this  tree  for 
Norway  spruce,  and  gave  it  the  name  which  has  since  remained  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  its  range.  It  is  called  red  pine  also,  and  this  name  is 
strictly  descriptive.  The  brown  or  red  color  of  the  bark  is  instantly 
noticed  by  one  who  sees  the  tree  for  the  first  time.  In  the  Lake  States  it 
has  been  called  hard  pine  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  it  from  the 
softer  white  pine  with  which  it  is  associated.  In  England  they  call  it 
Canadian  red  pine,  because  the  principal  supply  in  England  is  imported 
from  the  Canadian  provinces. 

Its  chief  range  lies  in  the  drainage  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
which  includes  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  rivers  which  flow  into  them. 
Newfoundland  forms  the  eastern  and  Manitoba  the  western  outposts  of 
this  species.  It  is  found  as  far  south  as  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania, 
northern  Ohio,  central  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  It  con- 
forms pretty  generally  to  the  range  of  white  pine  but  does  not  accom- 
pany that  species  southward  along  the  Appalachian  mountain  ranges 
across  West  Virginia,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  Where  it 
was  left  to  compete  in  nature's  way  with  white  pine,  the  contest  was 
friendly,  but  white  pine  got  the  best  of  it.  The  two  species  grew  in 
intermixture,  but  in  most  instances  white  pine  had  from  five  to  twenty 
trees  to  Norway's  one.  As  a  survivor  under  adversity,  however,  the 
Norway  pine  appears  to  surpass  its  great  friendly  rival,  at  least  in  the 
Lake  States  where  the  great  pineries  once  flourished  and  have  largely 
passed  away.  Solitary  or  small  clumps  of  Norway  pines  are  occasionally 
found  where  not  a  white  pine,  large  or  small,  is  in  sight. 

The  forest  appearance  of  Norway  pine  resembles  the  southern 
yellow  pines.  The  stand  is  open,  the  trunks  are  clean  and  tall,  the 
branches  are  at  the  top.  The  Norway's  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  two, 
and  are  five  or  six  inches  long.  They  fall  during  the  fourth  or  fifth 
year.  Cones  are  two  inches  long,  and  when  mature,  closely  resemble 
the  color  of  the  tree's  bark,  that  is,  light  chestnut  brovyn.  Exceptionally 
tall  Norway  pines  may  reach  a  height  of  150  feet,  but  the  average  is 
seventy  or  eighty,  with  diameters  of  from  two  to  four.  Young  trees  are 
limby,  but  early  in  life  the  lower  branches  die  and  fall,  leaving  few 
protruding  stubs  or  knots.  It  appears  to  be  a  characteristic  that  trunks 
are  seldom  quite  straight.  They  do  not  have  the  plumb  appearance  of 
forest  grown  white  pine  and  spruce. 

The  wood  of  Norway  pine  is  medium  light,  its  strength  and  stiffness 


62  American  Forest  Trees 

about  twenty-five  per  cent  greater  than  white  pine,  and  it  is  moderately 
soft.  The  annual  rings  are  rather  wide,  indicating  rapid  growth.  The 
bands  of  summerwood  are  narrow  compared  with  the  springwood, 
which  gives  a  generally  light  color  to  the  wood,  though  not  as  light  as  the 
wood  of  white  pine.  The  resin  passages  are  small  and  fairly  numerous. 
The  sapwood  is  thick,  and  the  wood  is  not  dm-able  in  contact  with  the 
soil. 

Norway  pine  has  always  had  a  place  of  its  own  in  the  lumber 
trade,  but  large  quantities  have  been  marketed  as  white  pine.  If  such 
had  not  been  the  case,  Norway  pine  would  have  been  much  oftener  heard 
of  during  the  years  when  the  Lake  State  pineries  were  sending  their 
billions  of  feet  of  lumber  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Because  of  the  deposit  of  resinous  materials  in  the  wood,  Norway 
pine  stumps  resist  decay  much  better  than  white  pine.  In  some  of  the 
early  cuttings  in  Michigan,  where  only  stumps  remain  to  show  how  large 
the  trees  were  and  how  thick  they  stood,  the  Norway  stumps  are  much 
better  preserved  than  the  white  pine.  Using  that  fact  as  a  basis  of 
estimate,  it  may  be  shown  that  in  many  places  the  Norway  pine  consti- 
tuted one-fifth  or  one-foiu-th  of  the  original  stand.  The  lumbermen 
cut  clean,  and  statistics  of  that  period  do  not  show  that  the  two  pines 
were  generally  marketed  separately.  In  recent  years  many  of  the 
Norway  stumps  have  been  pulled,  and  have  been  sold  to  wood-distilla- 
tion plants  where  the  rosin  and  turpentine  are  extracted. 

At  an  early  date  Norway  pine  from  Canada  and  northern  New  York 
was  popular  ship  timber  in  this  country  and  England.  Slender,  straight 
trunks  were  selected  as  masts,  or  were  sawed  for  decking  planks  thirty  or 
forty  feet  long.  Shipbuilders  insisted  that  planks  be  all  heartwood, 
because  when  sapwood  was  exposed  to  rain  and  sun,  it  changed  to  a  green 
color,  due  to  the  presence  of  fungus.  The  wood  wears  well  as  ship 
decking.  The  British  navy  was  still  using  some  Norway  pine  masts 
as  late  as  1875. 

The  scarcity  of  this  timber  has  retired  it  from  some  of  the  places 
which  it  once  filled,  and  the  southern  yellow  pines  have  been  substituted. 
It  is  still  employed  for  many  important  purposes,  the  chief  of  which 
is  car  building,  if  statistics  for  the  state  of  Illinois  are  a  criterion  for  the 
whole  country.  In  1909  in  that  state  24,794,000  feet  of  it  were  used  for 
all  piurposes,  and  14,783,000  feet  in  car  construction. 

For  many  years  Chicago  has  been  the  center  of  the  Norway  pine 
trade.  It  is  landed  there  by  lake  steamers  and  by  rail,  and  is  distributed 
to  ultimate  consumers.  The  uses  for  the  wood,  as  reported  by  Illinois 
manufacturers,  follow :  Baskets,  boxes,  boats,  brackets,  casing  and  frames 
for  doors  and  windows,  crating,  derricks  for  well-boring  machines,  doors. 


American  Forest  Trees  63 

elevators,  fixtures  for  stores  and  offices,  foot  or  running  boards  for  tank 
cars,  foundry  flasks,  freight  cars,  hand  rails,  insulation  for  refrigerator 
cars,  ladders,  pictiu-e  moldings,  roofing,  sash,  siding  for  cattle  cars,  sign 
boards  and  advertising  signs,  tanks,  and  windmill  towers. 

As  with  white  pine,  Norway  pine  has  past  the  period  of  greatest 
production,  though  much  still  goes  to  market  every  year  and  will  long 
continue  to  do  so.  The  land  which  lumbermen  denuded  in  the  Lake 
States,  particularly  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  years  ago,  did  not  reclothe 
itself  with  Norway  seedlings.  That  would  have  taken  place  in  most 
instances  but  for  fires  which  ran  periodically  through  the  slashings  until 
all  seedlings  were  destroyed.  In  many  places  there  are  now  few  seed- 
lings and  few  large  trees  to  bear  seeds,  and  consequently  the  pine  forest 
in  such  places  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  outlook  is  better  in  other 
localities. 

The  Norway  pine  is  much  planted  for  ornament,  and  is  rated  one  of 
the  handsomest  of  northern  park  trees. 

Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida).  The  name  pitch  pine  is  locally  applied  to  almost 
every  species  of  hard,  resinous  pine  in  this  country.  The  Pinus  rigida  has  other 
names  than  pitch  pine.  In  Delaware  it  is  called  longleaved  pine,  since  its  needles  are 
longer  than  the  scrub  pine's  with  which  it  is  associated.  For  the  same  reason  it  is 
known  in  some  localities  as  longschat  pine.  In  Massachusetts  it  is  called  hard  pine,  in 
Pennsylvania  yellow  pine,  in  North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee  black  pine,  and 
black  Norway  pine  in  New  York.  The  botanical  name  is  translated  "rigid  pine,"  but 
the  rigid  refers  to  the  leaves,  not  the  wood.  Its  range  covers  New  England,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  southern  Canada,  eastern  Ohio,  and  southward  along  the 
mountains  to  northern  Georgia.  It  has  three  leaves  in  a  cluster,  from  three  to  five  in- 
ches long,  and  they  fall  the  second  year.  Cones  range  in  length  from  one  to  three 
inches,  and  they  hang  on  the  branches  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  wood  is  medium 
light,  moderately  strong,  but  low  in  stiffness.  It  is  soft  and  brittle.  The  annual 
rings  are  wide,  the  summerwood  broad,  distinct,  and  very  resinous.  Medullary  rays 
are  few  but  prominent ;  color,  Ught  brown  or  red,  the  thick  sapwood  yellow  or  often 
nearly  white.  The  difference  in  the  hardness  between  springwood  and  summerwood 
renders  it  difficult  to  work,  and  causes  uneven  wear  when  used  as  flooring.  It  is 
fairly  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 

The  tree  attains  a  height  of  from  forty  to  eighty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three. 
This  pine  is  not  found  in  extensive  forests,  but  in  scattered  patches,  nearly  always  on 
poor  soil  where  other  trees  will  not  crowd  it.  Light  and  air  are  necessary  to  its 
existence.  If  it  receives  these,  it  will  fight  successfully  against  adversities  which 
would  be  fatal  to  many  other  species.  In  resistance  to  forest  fires,  it  is  a  salamander 
among  trees.  That  is  primarily  due  to  its  thick  bark,  but  it  is  favored  also  by  the 
situations  in  which  it  is  generally  found — open  woods,  and  on  soil  so  poor  that  ground 
Utter  is  thin.  It  is  a  useful  wood  for  many  purposes,  and  wherever  it  is  found  in 
sufficient  quantity,  it  goes  to  market,  but  vmder  its  own  name  only  in  restricted  lo- 
calities. Its  resinous  knots  were  once  used  in  place  of  candles  in  frontier  homes. 
Tar  made  locally  from  its  rich  wood  was  the  pioneer  wagoner's  axle  grease,  and  the 
ever-present  tar  bucket  and  tar  paddle  swung  from  the  rear  axle.  Torches  made  by 
tying  splinters  in  bundles  answered  for  lanterns  in  night  travel.     It  was  the  best  pine 


64  American  Forest  Trees 

for  floors  in  some  localities.  It  is  probably  used  more  for  boxes  than  for  anything 
else  at  present.  In  1909  Massachusetts  box  makers  bought  600,000  feet,  and  a  Uttle 
more  went  to  Maryland  box  factories.  Its  poor  holding  power  on  spikes  limits  its 
employment  as  railroad  ties  and  in  shipbuilding.  Carpenters  and  furniture  makers 
object  to  the  numerous  knots.  Country  blacksmiths  who  repair  and  make  wagons 
as  a  side  Une,  find  it  suitable  for  wagon  beds.  It  is  much  used  as  fuel  where  it  is 
convenient. 

ToRREY  Pine  (Pinus  torreyana),  called  del  mar  pine  and  Soledad  pine,  is  an 
interesting  tree  from  the  fact  that  its  range  is  so  restricted  that  the  actual  number  of 
trees  could  be  easily  known  to  one  who  would  take  the  trouble  to  count  them.  A 
rather  large  quantity  formerly  occupied  a  small  area  in  San  Diego  county,  California, 
but  woodchoppers  who  did  not  appreciate  the  fact  that  they  were  exterminating  a 
species  of  pine  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  cut  nearly  all  of  the  trees  for  fuel.  Its 
range  covered  only  a  few  square  miles,  and  fortunately  part  of  that  was  included  in 
the  city  limits  of  San  Diego.  An  ordinance  was  passed  prohibiting  the  cutting  of  a 
Torrey  pine  under  heavy  penalty,  and  the  tree  was  thus  saved.  A  hundred  ana 
fifty  miles  off  the  San  Diego  coast  a  few  Torrey  pines  grow  on  the  islands  of  Santa 
Cruz  and  Santa  Rosa,  and  owing  to  their  isolated  situation  they  bid  fair  to  escape  the 
cordwood  cutter  for  years  to  come.  Those  who  have  seen  this  tree  on  its  native 
hills  have  admired  the  gameness  of  its  battle  for  existence  against  the  elements. 
Standing  in  the  full  sweep  of  the  ocean  winds,  its  strong,  short  branches  scarcely 
move,  and  all  the  agitation  is  in  the  thick  tufts  of  needles  which  cling  to  the  ends  of 
the  branches.  Trees  exposed  to  the  seawinds  are  stunted,  and  are  generally  less  than 
a  foot  in  diameter  and  thirty  feet  high ;  but  those  which  are  so  fortunate  as  to  occupy 
sheltered  valleys  are  three  or  four  times  that  size.  The  needles  are  five  in  a  cluster. 
The  cones  persist  on  the  branches  three  or  four  years.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  moder- 
ately strong,  very  brittle;  the  rings  of  yearly  growth  are  broad,  and  the  yellow  bands 
of  summerwood  occupy  nearly  half.    The  sapwood  is  very  thick  and  is  nearly  white. 


WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE 


WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE 

(Pinus  Ponderosa) 

THE  range  of  western  yellow  pine  covers  a  million  square  miles.  Its 
eastern  boundary  is  a  line  drawn  from  South  Dakota  to  western 
Texas.  The  species  covers  much  of  the  country  between  that  line  and  the 
Pacific  ocean.  It  is  natural  that  it  should  have  more  names  than  one  in 
a  region  so  extensive.  It  is  best  known  as  western  yellow  pine,  but 
lumbermen  often  call  it  California  white  pine.  The  standing  timber  is 
frequently  designated  bull  pine,  but  that  name  is  not  often  given  to  the 
lumber.  Where  there  is  no  likelihood  of  confusing  it  with  southern  pines, 
it  is  called  simply  yellow  pine.  The  name  heavy-wooded  pine,  sometimes 
applied  to  the  lumber  in  England,  is  misleading.  When  well  seasoned  it 
weighs  about  thirty  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  ordinarily  it  would  not 
be  classed  heavy.  In  California  it  is  called  heavy  pine,  but  that  is  to 
distinguish  it  from  sugar  pine  which  is  considerably  lighter.  The  color 
of  its  bark  has  given  it  the  name  Sierra  brownbark  pine.  The  same  tree 
in  Montana  is  called  black  pine. 

The  tree  has  developed  two  forms.  Some  botanists  have  held  there 
are  two  species,  but  that  is  not  the  general  opinion.  In  the  warm,  damp 
climate  of  the  Pacific  slope  the  tree  is  larger,  and  somewhat  different  in 
appearance  from  the  form  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  same 
observation  holds  true  of  Douglas  fir. 

The  wood  of  western  yellow  pine  is  medium  light,  not  strong,  is 
low  in  elasticity,  medullary  rays  prominent  but  not  numerous ;  resinous, 
color  light  to  reddish,  the  thick  sapwood  almost  white.  The  annual 
rings  are  variable  in  width,  and  the  proportionate  amounts  of  spring- 
wood  and  summerwood  also  vary.  It  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the 
ground. 

The  wood  is  easy  to  work  and  some  of  the  best  of  it  resembles 
white  pine,  but  as  a  whole  it  is  inferior  to  that  wood,  though  it  is  ex- 
tensively employed  as  a  substitute  for  it  in  the  manufacture  of  doors, 
sash,  and  frames.  It  is  darker  than  white  pine,  harder,  heavier, 
stronger,  almost  exactly  equal  in  stiffness,  but  the  annual  rings  of 
the  two  woods  do  not  bear  close  resemblance. 

The  tree  reaches  a  height  of  from  100  to  200  feet,  a  diameter  from 
three  to  seven.  It  is  occasionally  much  larger.  Its  size  depends  much 
on  its  habitat.  The  best  development  occurs  on  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains  in  California  and  the  best  wood  comes  from  that  region, 
though  certain  other  localities  produce  high-grade  lumber. 

Western  yellow  pine  holds  and  will  long  hold  an  important  place 
67 


68  American  Forest  Trees 

in  the  country's  timber  resources.  The  total  stand  has  been  estimated 
at  275,000,000,000  feet,  and  is  second  only  to  that  of  Douglas  fir,  though 
the  combined  stand  of  the  four  southern  yellow  pines  is  about  100,000,- 
000,000  feet  larger.  It  is  a  vigorous  species,  able  to  hold  its  ground  under 
ordinary  cu-cumstances.  Next  to  incense  cedar  and  the  giant  sequoias 
which  are  associated  with  it  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  it  is  the 
most  prolific  seed  bearer  of  the  western  conifers,  and  its  seeds  are 
sufficiently  light  to  insure  wide  distribution.  It  is  gaining  ground  within 
its  range  by  taking  possession  of  vacant  areas  which  have  been  bared  by 
lumbering  or  fire.  In  some  cases  it  crowds  to  death  the  more  stately 
sugar  pine  by  cutting  off  its  light  and  moisture.  It  resists  fire  better 
than  most  of  the  forest  trees  with  which  it  is  associated.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  suffers  from  enemies  more  than  its  associates  do.  A  beetle 
(Dendrodonus  ponder os(b),  destroys  large  stands.  In  the  Black  Hills 
in  1903  its  ravages  killed  600,000,000  feet. 

This  splendid  pine  has  run  the  gamut  of  uses  from  the  corral  pole 
of  the  first  settler  to  the  paneled  door  turned  out  by  the  modem  factory. 
It  has  almost  an  unlimited  capacity  for  usefulness.  It  grows  in  dry 
regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  where  it  is  practically  the  only  soiu-ce 
of  wood  supply;  and  it  is  equally  secm-e  in  its  position  where  forests 
are  abundant  and  fine.  It  has  supplied  props,  stulls,  and  lagging  for 
mines  in  nearly  every  state  touched  by  its  range.  Without  its  ties  and 
other  timbers  some  of  the  early  railroads  through  the  western  mountains 
could  scarcely  have  been  built.  It  has  been  one  of  the  leading  flume 
timbers  in  western  lumber  and  irrigation  development.  It  fenced  many 
ranches  in  early  times  and  is  still  doing  so.  It  is  used  in  general  con- 
struction, and  in  finish ;  from  the  shingle  to  the  foundation  sill  of  houses. 
It  finds  its  way  to  eastern  lumber  markets.  Almost  20,000,000  feet 
a  year  are  used  in  Illinois  alone.  Competition  with  eastern  white  pine 
is  met  in  the  Lake  States  because,  grade  for  grade,  the  western  wood  is 
cheaper,  until  lower  grades  are  reached.  The  western  yellow  pine,  in  the 
eastern  market,  is  confused  with  the  western  white  pine  of  Idaho  and 
Montana  {Pinus  monticola)  and  separate  statistics  of  use  are  impossible. 

The  makers  of  fruit  boxes  in  California  often  employ  the  yellow 
pine  in  lieu  of  sugar  pine  which  once  supplied  the  whole  trade.  It  is 
also  used  by  coopers  for  various  containers,  but  not  for  alcoholic  liquors. 

The  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  twos  and  threes,  and  are  from  five  to 
eleven  inches  long.  Most  of  them  fall  during  the  third  year.  The 
cones  are  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  and  generally  fall  soon  after 
they  reach  maturity. 

Coulter  Pine  {Pinus  coullert)  is  also  known  as  nut  pine,  big  cone  pine,  and 
long  cone  pine.     It  is  a  California  species,  scarce,  but  of  much  interest  because  of  its 


American  Forest  Trees  69 

cones.  They  are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  American  pine  and  are  armed  with 
formidable  curved  spines  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  The 
cones  are  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  long.  The  tree  is  found  on  the  Coast  Range 
mountains  from  the  latitude  of  San  Francisco  to  the  boundary  between  California 
and  Mexico.  It  thrives  at  altitudes  of  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet.  It  never  occurs  in 
pure  stands  and  the  total  amount  is  small.  It  looks  like  the  western  yellow  pine,  but 
is  much  inferior  in  size.  Trunks  seldom  attain  a  length  of  fifteen  feet  or  a  diameter 
of  two.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Coulter  pine  is  increasing  its  stand  on  the  ground 
which  it  already  occupies,  or  spreading  to  new  ground.  The  wood  is  light,  soft, 
moderately  strong,  and  very  tough.  The  annual  rings  are  narrow  and  consist  largely 
of  summerwood.  The  heartwood  is  Ught  red,  the  thick  sapwood  nearly  white.  It  is 
a  poor  tree  for  lumber,  and  it  has  been  little  used  in  that  way,  but  has  been  burned 
for  charcoal  for  blacksmith  shops,  and  much  is  sold  as  cordwood.  The  leaves  of 
Coulter  pine  are  in  clusters  of  three,  and  they  fall  during  the  third  and  fourth  years. 

California  Swamp  Pine  (Pinus  muricata)  clearly  belongs  among  minor 
species  listed  as  timber  trees.  It  meets  a  small  demand  for  skids,  corduroy  log  roads, 
bridge  floors,  and  scaffolds  in  the  redwood  logging  operations  in  Cahfomia.  It  is 
scattered  along  the  Pacific  coast  500  miles,  beginning  in  Lower  California  and  ending  a 
hundred  miles  north  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  known  as  dwarf  marine  pine,  prickle- 
cone  pine,  bishop  pine,  and  obispo  pine.  The  last  name  is  the  Spanish  translation  of 
the  English  word  bishop.  The  largest  trees  seldom  exceed  two  feet  in  diameter,  and 
a  height  of  ninety  feet.  The  average  size  is  Uttle  more  than  half  as  much.  The 
wood  is  very  strong,  hard,  and  compact,  and  the  annual  growth  ring  is  largely  dense 
summerwood.  Resin  passages  are  few,  but  the  wood  is  resinous,  light  brown  in 
color,  and  the  thick  sapwood  is  nearly  white.  The  needles  are  in  clusters  of  two,  and 
are  from  four  to  six  inches  long.  They  begin  to  fall  the  second  year.  Some  of  the 
trees  retain  their  cones  until  death,  but  the  seeds  are  scattered  from  year  to  year. 
Under  the  stimulus  of  artificial  conditions  in  the  redwood  districts  this  pine  seems  to 
be  spreading.  Its  seeds  blow  into  vacant  ground  from  which  redwood  has  been 
removed,  and  growth  is  prompt.  The  seedlings  are  not  at  all  choice  as  to  soil,  but 
take  root  in  cold  clay,  in  peat  bogs,  on  barren  sand  and  gravel,  and  on  wind-swept 
ridges  exposed  to  ocean  fogs.  Its  ability  to  grow  where  few  other  trees  can  maintain 
themselves  holds  out  some  hope  that  its  usefulness  will  increase. 

Monterey  Pine  (Pinus  radiata).  This  scarce  and  local  species  is  restricted 
to  the  California  coast  south  of  San  Francisco,  and  to  adjacent  islands.  Under 
favorable  circumstances  it  grows  rapidly  and  promises  to  be  of  more  importance  as  a 
lumber  source  in  the  future  than  it  has  been  in  the  past.  It  is,  however,  somewhat 
particular  as  to  soil.  It  must  have  ground  not  too  wet  or  too  dry.  If  these  require- 
ments are  observed,  it  is  a  good  tree  for  planting.  Its  average  height  is  seventy  or 
ninety  feet,  diameter  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches.  Trunks  six  feet  in  diameter  are 
occasionally  heard  of.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  moderately  strong,  tough,  annual 
rings  very  wide  and  largely  of  springwood;  color,  light  brown,  the  very  thick 
sapwood  nearly  white.  The  leaves  are  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  in  clusters  of  two 
and  three,  and  fall  the  third  year.  Cones  are  from  three  to  five  inches  long. 
The  lumber  is  too  scarce  at  present  to  have  much  importance,  but  its  quahty  is 
good.  In  appearance  it  resembles  wide-ringed  loblolly  pine,  and  appears  to  be 
suitable  for  doors  and  sash,  and  frames  for  windows  and  doors.  Its  present  uses  are 
confined  chiefly  to  ranch  timbers  and  fuel.  If  it  ever  amounts  to  much  as  a 
lumber  resource,  it  will  be  as  a  planted  pine,  and  not  in  its  natural  state. 

Jack  Pine  (Pinus  divaricata)  is  a  far  northern  species  which  extends  its  range 


70  American  Forest  Trees 

southward  in  the  United  States,  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  reaches  northern 
Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  grows  almost  far  enough  north  in  the  valley  of  Mackenzie 
river  to  catch  the  rays  of  the  midnight  sun.  It  must  necessarily  adapt  itself  to  cir- 
cumstances. When  these  are  favorable,  it  develops  a  tnmk  up  to  two  feet  in 
diameter  and  seventy  feet  tall;  but  in  adversity,  it  degenerates  into  a  many-branched 
shrub  a  few  feet  high.  The  average  tree  in  the  United  States  is  thirty  or  forty  feet 
tall,  and  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Its  name  is  intended  as  a  term  of  contempt, 
which  it  does  not  deserve.  Others  call  it  scrub  pine  which  is  little  better.  Its  other 
names  are  more  respectful.  Prince's  pine  in  Ontario,  black  pine  in  Wisconsin  and 
Minnesota,  cypress  in  Quebec  and  the  Hudson  Bay  country.  Sir  Joseph  Banks'  pine 
in  England,  and  juniper  in  some  parts  of  Canada.  "Chek  pine"  is  frequently  given  in 
its  list  of  names,  but  the  name  is  said  to  have  originated  in  an  attempt  of  a  German 
botanist  to  pronounce  "Jack  pine"  in  dictating  to  a  stenographer.  The  tree  straggles 
over  landscapes  which  otherwise  would  be  treeless.  It  is  often  a  ragged  and  uncouth 
specimen  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  that  is  when  it  is  at  its  worst.  At  its  best, 
as  it  may  be  seen  where  cared  for  in  some  of  the  Michigan  cemeteries,  it  is  as  hand- 
some a  tree  as  anyone  could  desire.  The  characteristic  thinness  and  delicacy  of  its 
foliage  distinguish  it  at  once  from  its  associates.  The  peculiar  green  of  its  soft,  short 
needles  wins  admiration.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  not  strong;  annual  rings  are  moder- 
ately wide,  and  are  largely  composed  of  springwood.  The  thin  bands  of  summerwood 
are  resinous,  and  the  small  resin  ducts  are  few.  The  thick  sapwood  is  nearly  white, 
the  heartwood  brown  or  orange.     It  is  not  durable. 

Jack  pine  can  never  be  an  important  timber  tree,  because  too  small;  but  a 
considerable  amount  is  used  for  bed  slats,  nail  kegs,  plastering  lath,  barrel  headings, 
boxes,  mine  props,  pulpwood,  and  fuel.  Aside  from  its  use  as  lumber  and  small 
manufactured  products,  it  has  a  value  for  other  purposes.  It  can  maintain  its 
existence  in  waste  sands;  and  its  usefulness  is  apparent  in  fixing  drifting  dunes  along 
some  of  the  exposed  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior.  It  Uves  on  dry 
sand  and  sends  its  roots  several  feet  to  water;  or,  under  circumstances  entirely 
different,  it  thrives  in  swamps  where  the  watertable  is  little  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  fights  a  brave  battle  against  adversities  while  it  lasts,  but  it  does  not 
live  long.  Sixty  years  is  old  age  for  this  tree.  It  grows  fast  while  young,  but  later 
it  devotes  all  its  energies  to  the  mere  process  of  living,  and  its  increase  in  size  is  slow, 
until  at  a  period  when  most  trees  are  still  in  early  youth,  it  dies  of  old  age,  and  the 
northern  winds  quickly  whip  away  its  limbs,  leaving  the  barkless  trunk  to  stand  a  few 
years  longer. 


LODGEPOLE  PINE 


C't^SI 

•:i 

^m 

^^M- 

i' '  :  i 

....  :i: 
1  „ 

■■■■::•' 

LODGEPOLE    PiNI 


T 


LODGEPOLE  PINE 

(Pinus  Contorta) 

HE  common  name  of  this  tree  was  given  it  because  its  tall,  slender, 
very  light  poles  were  used  by  Indians  of  the  region  in  the  con- 
struction of  their  lodges.  They  selected  poles  fifteen  feet  long  and 
two  inches  in  diameter,  set  them  in  a  circle,  bent  the  tops  together,  tied 
them,  and  covered  the  frame  with  skins  or  bark.  The  poles  were 
peeled  in  early  summer,  when  the  Indians  set  out  upon  their  summer 
hunt,  and  were  left  to  season  until  fall,  when  they  were  carried  to  the 
winter's  camping  place,  probably  fifty  miles  distant.  Tamarack  is  a 
common  name  for  this  pine  in  much  of  its  range;  it  is  likewise  known  as 
black  pine,  spruce  pine,  and  prickly  pine.  Its  leaves  are  from  one  to  two 
inches  long,  in  clusters  of  two.  The  small  cones  adhere  to  the  branches 
many  years — sometimes  as  long  as  twenty — without  releasing  the  seeds, 
which  are  sealed  within  the  cone  by  accumulated  resin.  The  vitality  of 
the  seeds  is  remarkable.  They  don't  lose  their  power  of  germination 
during  their  long  imprisonment. 

The  lodgepole  pine  has  been  called  a  fire  tree,  and  the  name  is 
not  inappropriate.  It  profits  by  severe  burning,  as  some  other  trees 
of  the  United  States  do,  such  as  paper  birch  and  bird  cherry.  The 
sealed  cones  are  opened  by  fire,  which  softens  the  resin,  and  the  seeds 
are  liberated  after  the  fire  has  passed,  and  wing  their  flight  wherever 
the  wind  carries  them.  The  passing  fire  may  be  severe  enough  to  kill 
the  parent  tree  without  destroying  or  bringing  down  the  cones.  The 
seeds  soon  fall  on  the  bared  mineral  soil,  where  they  germinate  by 
thousands.  More  than  one  hundred  thousand  small  seedling  trees  may 
occupy  a  single  acre.  Most  of  them  are  ultimately  crowded  to  death,  but 
a  thick  stand  results.  Most  lodgepole  pine  forests  occupy  old  biuns. 
The  tree  is  one  of  the  slowest  of  growers.  It  never  reaches  large  size — 
possibly  three  feet  is  the  limit.  It  is  very  tall  and  slender.  A  hundred 
years  will  scarcely  produce  a  sawlog  of  the  smallest  size. 

The  range  of  this  tree  covers  a  million  square  miles  from  Alaska 
to  New  Mexico,  and  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Its  characters  vary  in  different 
parts  of  its  range.  A  scrub  form  was  once  thought  to  be  a  different 
species,  and  was  called  shore  pine. 

The  wood  is  of  about  the  same  weight  as  eastern  white  pine.  It  is 
light  in  color,  rather  weak,  and  brittle,  annual  rings  very  narrow, 
summerwood  small  in  amount,  resin  passages  few  and  small ;  medullary 
rays  numerous,  broad,  and  prominent.  The  wood  is  characterized  by 
numerous  small  knots.     It  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground, 

73 


74  American  Forest  Trees 

but  it  readily  receives  preservative  treatment.  In  height  it  ranges  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  feet. 

The  government's  estimate  of  the  stand  of  lodgepole  pine  in  the 
United  States  in  1909  placed  it  at  90,000,000,000  feet.  That  makes 
it  seventh  in  quantity  among  the  timber  trees  of  this  country,  those 
above  it  being  Douglas  fir,  the  southern  yellow  pines  (considered  as 
one),  western  yellow  pine,  redwood,  western  hemlock,  and  the  red 
cedar  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho. 

Lodgepole  pine  has  been  long  and  widely  used  as  a  ranch  timber  in 
the  Far  West,  serving  for  poles  and  rails  in  fences,  for  sheds,  barns,  cor- 
rals, pens,  and  small  bridges.  Where  it  could  be  had  at  all,  it  was  gener- 
ally plentiful.  Stock  ranges  high  among  the  mountains  frequently  de- 
pend almost  solely  upon  lodgepole  pine  for  necessary  timber. 

Mine  operators  find  it  a  valuable  resource.  As  props  it  is  cheap, 
substantial,  and  convenient  in  many  parts  of  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana.  A  large  proportion  of  this  timber  which  is 
cut  for  mining  purposes  has  been  standing  dead  from  fire  injiuy  many 
years,  and  is  thoroughly  seasoned  and  very  light.  It  is  in  excellent 
condition  for  receiving  preservative  treatment. 

Sawmills  do  not  list  lodgepole  pine  separately  in  reports  of  lumber 
cut,  and  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  the  annual  supply  from 
the  species  is.  It  is  well  known  that  the  quantity  made  into  lumber 
in  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Idaho  is  large.  Its  chief  market 
is  among  the  newly  established  agricultural  communities  in  those  states. 
They  use  it  for  fruit  and  vegetable  shipping  boxes,  fencing  plank, 
pickets,  and  plastering  lath. 

Railroads  buy  half  a  million  lodgepole  pine  crossties  yearly. 
When  creosoted,  they  resist  decay  many  years.  Lodgepole  pine  has 
been  a  tie  material  since  the  first  railroads  entered  the  region,  and 
while  by  no  means  the  best,  it  promises  to  fill  a  much  more  important 
place  in  the  future  than  in  the  past.  It  is  an  ideal  fence  post  material 
as  far  as  size  and  form  are  concerned,  and  with  preservative  treatment 
it  is  bound  to  attain  a  high  place.  It  is  claimed  that  treated  posts  will 
last  twenty  years,  and  that  puts  them  on  a  par  with  the  cedars. 

In  Colorado  and  Wyoming  much  lodgepole  was  formerly  burned  for 
charcoal  to  supply  the  furnaces  which  smelted  ore  and  the  blacksmith 
shops  of  the  region.  This  is  done  now  less  than  formerly,  since  railroad 
building  has  made  coal  and  coke  accessible. 

In  one  respect,  lodgepole  pine  is  to  the  western  mountains  what 
loblolly  pine  is  to  the  flat  country  of  the  south  Atlantic  and  other  south- 
em  states.  It  is  aggressive,  and  takes  possession  of  vacant  ground. 
Although  the  wood  is  not  as  valuable  as  loblolly,  it  is  useful,  and  has 


American  Forest  Trees  75 

an  important  place  to  fill  in  the  western  country's  development.  Its 
greatest  drawback  is  its  exceedingly  slow  growth.  A  hundred  years  is  a 
long  time  to  wait  for  trees  of  pole  size.  Two  crops  of  loblolly  sawlogs  can 
be  harvested  in  that  time.  However,  the  land  on  which  the  lodgepole 
grows  is  fit  only  for  timber,  and  the  acreage  is  so  vast  that  there  is 
enough  to  grow  supplies,  even  with  the  wait  of  a  century  or  two  for 
harvest.  The  stand  has  increased  enormously  within  historic  time,  the 
same  as  loblolly,  and  for  a  similar  reason.  Men  cleared  land  in  the  East, 
and  loblolly  took  possession;  fires  destroyed  western  forests  of  other 
species  and  lodgepole  seized  and  held  the  burned  tracts. 

If  fires  cease  among  the  western  moimtains,  as  will  probably  be  the 
case  under  more  efiicient  methods  of  patrol,  and  with  stricter  enforce- 
ment of  laws  against  starting  fires,  the  spread  of  lodgepole  pine  will 
come  to  a  standstill,  and  existing  forests  will  grow  old  without  much 
extension  of  their  borders. 

Jeffrey  Pine  {Pinus  jeffreyi)  is  often  classed  as  western  yellow 
pine,  both  in  the  forest  and  at  the  mill.  Its  range  extends  from  southern 
Oregon  to  Lower  Calif ornia,  a  distance  of  1,000  miles,  and  its  width  east 
and  west  varies  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  is  a 
mountain  tree  and  generally  occupies  elevations  above  the  western 
yellow  pine.  In  the  North  its  range  reaches  3,600  feet  above  sea  level ; 
in  the  extreme  South  it  is  10,000  feet.  The  darker  and  more  deeply- 
furrowed  bark  of  the  Jeffrey  pine  is  the  usual  character  by  which  lumber- 
men distinguish  it  from  the  western  yellow  pine.  It  is  known  under 
several  names,  most  of  them  relating  to  the  tree's  appearance,  such  as 
black  pine,  redbark  pine,  blackbark  pine,  sapwood  pine,  and  bull  pine. 
It  reaches  the  same  size  as  the  western  yellow  pine,  though  the  average 
is  a  little  smaller.  The  leaves  are  from  four  to  nine  inches  long,  and  fall  in 
eight  or  nine  years.  The  cones  are  large,  and  armed  with  slender,  curved 
spines.  The  seeds  are  too  heavy  to  fly  far,  their  wing  area  being  small. 
It  is  a  vigorous  tree,  and  in  some  regions  it  forms  good  forests.  Some 
botanists  have  considered  the  Jeffrey  pine  a  variety  of  the  western 
yellow  pine. 

Gray  Pine  {Pinus  sabiniana),  called  also  Digger  pine  because  the  Digger 
Indians  formerly  collected  the  seeds,  which  are  as  large  as  peanuts,  to  help  eke  out  a 
living,  is  confined  to  California,  and  grows  in  a  belt  on  the  foothills  surrounding 
the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys.  Its  cones  are  large  and  armed  with  hooked 
spines.  When  green,  the  largest  cones  weigh  three  or  four  pounds.  Leaves  are  from 
eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  in  clusters  of  two  and  three,  and  fall  the  third  and  fourth 
years.  The  wood  is  remarkable  for  the  quickness  of  its  decay  in  damp  situations.  It 
lasts  one  or  two  years  as  fence  posts.  A  mature  gray  pine  is  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet 
high,  and  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter.  Some  trees  are  much  larger.  It  is 
of  considerable  importance,  but  is  not  in  the  same  class  as  western  yellow  and  sugar 


76  American  Forest  Trees 

pine.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  rather  strong,  brittle.  The  annual  rings  are  generally 
wide,  indicating  rapid  growth.  Very  old  gray  pines  are  not  known.  An  age  of  185 
years  seems  to  be  the  highest  on  record.  The  wood  is  resinous,  and  it  has  helped  in  a 
small  way  to  supply  the  Pacific  coast  markets  with  high-grade  turpentine,  distilled 
from  roots.  It  yields  resin  when  boxed  like  the  southern  longleaf  pine.  There  are 
two  flowing  seasons.  One  is  very  early,  and  closes  when  the  weather  becomes  hot; 
the  other  is  in  full  current  by  the  middle  of  August.  It  maintains  hfe  among  the 
California  foothills  during  the  long  rainless  seasons,  on  ground  so  dry  that  semi- 
desert  chaparral  sometimes  succumbs;  but  it  is  able  to  make  the  most  of  favorable 
conditions,  and  it  grows  rapidly  under  the  slightest  encouragement.  The  seedlings 
are  more  numerous  now  than  formerly,  which  is  attributed  to  decrease  of  forest  fires. 
The  tree  has  enemies  which  generally  attack  it  in  youth.  Two  fungi,  Peridermium 
harknessi,  and  Dasdalia  vorax,  destroy  the  young  tree's  leader  or  topmost  shoot, 
causing  the  development  of  a  short  trunk.  The  latter  fungus  is  the  same  or  is  closely 
related  to  that  which  tunnels  the  trunk  of  incense  cedar  and  produces  pecky  cypress. 

Gray  pine  has  been  cut  to  some  extent  for  lumber,  but  its  principal  uses  have 
been  as  fuel  and  mine  timbers.  Many  quartz  mines  have  been  located  in  the  region 
where  the  tree  grows ;  and  the  engines  which  pumped  the  shafts  and  raised  and  crushed 
the  ore  were  often  heated  with  this  pine.  Thousands  of  acres  of  hillsides  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  mines  were  stripped  of  it,  and  it  went  to  the  engine  house  ricks  in  wagons,  on 
sleds,  and  on  the  backs  of  burros.  In  two  respects  it  is  an  economical  fuel  for  remote 
mines:  it  is  Ught  in  weight,  and  gives  more  heat  than  an  equal  quantity  of  the  oak 
that  is  associated  with  it. 

Chihuahua  Pine  {Pinus  chihuahuana)  is  not  abundant,  but  it  exists  in  small 
commercial  quantities  in  southwestern  New  Mexico  and  southern  Arizona.  Trees  are 
from  fifty  to  eighty  feet  high,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  The 
wood  is  medium  Ught,  soft,  rather  strong,  brittle,  narrow  ringed  and  compact.  The 
resin  passages  are  few,  large,  and  conspicuous;  color,  clear  light  orange,  the  thick 
sapwood  lighter.  The  tree  reaches  best  development  at  altitudes  of  from  5,000  to 
7,000  feet.  When  the  wood  is  used,  it  serves  the  same  purposes  as  western  yellow 
pine;  but  the  small  size  of  the  tree  makes  lumber  of  large  size  impossible.  The 
leaves  are  in  clusters  of  three,  aud  fall  the  fourth  year.  The  cones  have  long  stalks 
and  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long. 


WESTERN   LARCH 


Western  Larch 


TAMARACK 

{Larix  Laricina) 

THERE  are  three  species  of  tamarack  or  larch  in  the  United  States, 
and  probably  a  fourth  is  confined  to  Alaska.  One  has  its  range  in 
the  northeastern  states,  extending  south  to  West  Virginia  and  northwest- 
ward to  Alaska.  Two  are  found  in  the  northwestern  states.  Other 
species  are  native  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  some  of  them  have 
been  planted  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  A  species  of  Europe  is  of 
much  importance  in  that  country.  The  tamaracks  lose  their  leaves  in 
the  fall  and  the  branches  are  bare  during  the  winter.  The  name  tamarack 
or  larch  should  be  applied  only  to  trees  of  the  genus  larix.  This  rule  is 
not  observed  in  some  parts  of  the  West  where  the  noble  fir  (Abies  nobilis) 
is  occasionally  called  larch  by  lumbermen.  It  is  not  entitled  to  that 
name,  and  confusion  results  from  such  use. 

The  larches  are  easily  identified.  They  have  needle  leaves  like 
those  of  pines  and  firs,  but  they  are  differently  arranged.  They  are 
produced  in  little  brush-like  bundles,  from  twelve  to  forty  leaves  in  each, 
on  all  the  shoots,  except  the  leaders.  On  these  the  leaves  occur  singly. 
The  little  brushes  are  so  conspicuous,  and  so  characteristic  of  this 
genus,  including  all  its  species,  that  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in 
identifying  the  larches  when  the  leaves  are  on.  In  winter,  when  the 
branches  are  bare,  there  are  other  easy  marks  of  identification. 

The  little  brushes  are  interesting  objects  of  study.  Botanists  tell 
us  that  the  excrescence  or  bud-like  knob  from  which  the  leaves  grow  is 
really  a  suppressed  or  aborted  branch,  with  all  its  leaves  crowded 
together  at  the  end.  If  it  were  developed,  it  would  bear  its  leaves 
singly,  scattered  along  its  full  length,  as  they  occur  on  the  leading 
shoots.  The  warty  appearance  of  the  branches  in  winter  is  a  very 
convenient  means  of  identification  when  the  leaves  are  down. 

The  cones  of  larches  mature  in  a  single  season,  and  often  hang  on 
the  trees  several  years.  They  are  conspicuous  in  winter  when  the 
branches  are  bare  of  foliage.  The  adhering  cones  are  generally  seedless 
after  the  first  season,  since  they  quickly  let  their  winged  seeds  go.  The 
male  and  female  flowers  are  produced  singly  on  branches  of  the  previous 
year. 

The  eastern  and  northern  larch  {Larix  laricina)  has  a  number  of 
names.  It  is  commonly  known  as  tamarack  in  the  New  England  states 
and  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wiscon- 
sin, Michigan,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  and  in  Canada.  The  name  larch  is 
applied  in  practically  all  the  regions  where  it  grows,  but  it  is  not  used  as 

79 


80  American  Forest  Trees 

frequently  as  tamarack.  Hackmatack,  which  was  the  Indian  name  for 
the  tree  in  part  of  its  eastern  range,  is  still  in  use  in  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Delaware,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  and 
Ontario.  Nurserymen  call  it  American  larch  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
larches  on  the  market,  particularly  the  European  larch.  Michaux,  an 
early  French  botanist  who  explored  American  forests,  called  it  American 
larch  (Larix  americana) ,  and  the  name  which  he  gave  has  been  retained 
by  many  scientists  to  this  day.  In  the  Canadian  provinces  north  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  also  in  Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  it  is  frequently 
called  juniper,  but  without  good  reason,  for  it  has  little  of  the  appearance 
and  few  of  the  qualities  of  the  junipers.  In  some  localities  it  is  called 
black  larch,  and  in  others  red  larch.  The  first  name  refers  to  the  color 
of  its  bark,  the  last  to  the  leaves  when  about  to  fall,  for  they  then  change 
to  a  brown  or  reddish  color.  They  fall  in  the  autumn,  and  the  branches 
are  bare  until  the  next  spring.  Some  of  the  New  York  Indians  observed 
that  peculiarity  of  the  tree  which  they  thought  should  be  an  evergreen 
like  the  balsam  and  pines  with  which  it  was  often  associated,  and  they 
named  it  kenehtens,  meaning  "the  leaves  fall".  Indians  did  not,  as  a 
rule,  give  separate  names  to  tree  species,  and  when  they  did  so,  it  was 
because  of  food  value,  or  from  some  peculiarity  which  could  not  fail  to 
attract  the  notice  of  a  savage. 

The  tamarack's  geographical  range  is  remarkable.  It  is  said  to  be 
best  developed  in  the  region  east  of  Manitoba,  but  it  extends  southward 
into  West  Virginia  and  northward  to  the  land  of  the  midnight  sun.  It 
maintains  its  place  almost  to  the  arctic  snows,  and  the  willow  is  about 
the  only  tree  that  pushes  farther  north.  It  is  found  from  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador  far  down  toward  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  river,  north 
of  the  arctic  circle.  It  grows  on  dry  land  as  well  as  wet,  but  is  oftenest 
found  in  cold  swamps,  particularly  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range. 
Silted  up  lakes  are  favorite  situations,  and  on  the  made-land  above  old 
beaver  dams. 

Tamarack  forests  frequently  stand  on  ground  so  soft  that  a  pole 
may  be  thrust  ten  feet  deep  in  the  mud.  The  moist,  monotonous 
'sphagnum  moss  generally  furnishes  ground  cover  in  such  places.  A 
tamarack  swamp  in  summer  is  cool  and  pleasant — provided  there  is  not 
too  much  water  on  the  ground — but  in  winter  a  more  desolate  picture 
can  scarcely  be  imagined.  The  leafless  trees  appear  to  be  dead,  and 
covered  with  lifeless  cones;  but  the  first  warm  days  bring  it  to  life. 

The  average  height  of  tamarack  trees  is  from  forty  to  sixty  feet, 
diameter  twenty  inches  or  less.  Leaves  are  one-half  or  one  and  a  half 
inches  long;  cones  one-half  or  three-quarter  inches,  and  bright  chestnut 
brown  at  maturity.     They  fall  when  two  years  old.     The  winged  seeds 


American  Forest  Trees  81 

are  very  small.  The  tree  is  neither  a  frequent  nor  abundant  seeder. 
The  foliage  is  thin,  and  is  not  sufficient  to  shut  much  sunlight  from  the 
ground. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  and  is  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil.  The  growth  is  slow,  annual  rings  narrow,  summerwood 
occupies  nearly  half  the  ring,  and  is  dark-colored,  resinous,  and  con- 
spicuous; resin  passages  few  and  obscure;  medullary  rays  numerous 
and  obscure;  color  of  wood  light  brown,  the  sapwood  nearly  white. 

The  uses  of  tamarack  go  back  to  prehistoric  times.  The  Indians 
of  Canada  and  northeastern  United  States  drew  supplies  from  four 
forest  trees  when  they  made  their  bark  canoes.  The  bark  for  the  shell 
came  from  paper  birch,  threads  for  sewing  the  strips  of  bark  together 
were  tamarack  roots,  resin  for  stopping  leaks  was  a  product  of  balsam  fir, 
and  the  light  framework  of  wood  was  northern  white  cedar. 

The  roots  which  best  suited  the  Indian's  purpose  came  from  trees 
which  grew  in  soft,  deep  mud,  where  lakes  and  beaver  ponds  had  silted 
up.  Such  roots  are  long,  slender,  and  very  tough  and  pHant,  and  may 
be  gathered  in  large  numbers,  particularly  where  rimning  streams  have 
partly  undermined  standing  trees. 

White  men  likewise  made  use  of  tamarack  roots  in  boat  building, 
but  the  roots  were  different  from  what  the  Indians  used.  "Instep" 
crooks  were  hewed  for  ship  knees.  These  were  large  roots,  the  larger 
the  better.  Trees  which  produced  them  did  not  grow  in  deep  mud,  for 
there  the  roots  did  not  develop  crooks.  The  ship  knee  operator  hunted 
for  tamarack  forests  growing  on  a  soft  surface  soil  two  or  three  feet 
deep,  underlaid  by  stiff  clay  or  rock  which  roots  could  not  penetrate. 
In  situations  like  that  the  roots  go  straight  down  until  they  reach  the 
hard  stratum,  and  then  turn  at  right  angles  and  grow  in  a  horizontal 
dnection.  The  tiu-ning  point  in  the  root  develops  the  crook  of  which 
the  ship  knee  is  made. 

Tamarack  is  seldom  of  sufficient  size  for  the  largest  ship  knees. 
Such  were  formerly  supplied  by  southern  live  oak;  and  in  that  case 
crooks  formed  by  the  union  of  trunk  and  large  branches  were  as  good 
as  those  produced  by  the  union  of  trunk  and  large  roots. 

Tamarack  is  still  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  boat  knees,  but 
not  as  much  as  formerly.  Steel  frames  have  largely  taken  the  place  of 
wood  in  the  construction  of  ship  skeletons.  Boat  builders  use  tamarack 
now  for  floors,  keels,  stringers,   and  knees. 

Tamarack  has  come  into  much  use  in  recent  years.  Sawmills  cut 
from  it  more  than  125,000,000  feet  of  lumber  a  year.  Fourteen  states 
contribute,  but  most  of  the  lumber  is  produced  in  Minnesota,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin.     Raihoads  in  the  United  States  buy  5,000,000  or  more 


82  American  Forest  Trees 

tamarack  ties  a  year,  which  reduced  to  board  measure  amount  to  over 
150,000,000  feet.  Fence  posts  and  telegraph  poles  come  in  large  num- 
bers from  tamarack  forests. 

The  wood  is  stiff  and  strong,  its  stiffness  being  eighty-four  per  cent 
of  that  of  long  leaf  pine,  and  its  strength  about  eighty  per  cent.  Unusual 
variations  in  both  strength  and  stiffness  are  found.  One  stick  of  tama- 
rack may  rate  twice  as  high  as  another. 

The  wood-using  factories  of  Michigan  consume  nearly  20,000,000 
feet  of  this  wood  yearly.  It  is  made  into  boxes,  excelsior,  pails,  tanks, 
tubs,  house  finish,  refrigerators,  windmills,  and  wooden  pipes  for  water- 
works and  for  draining  mines. 

There  is  little  likelihood  that  the  supply  of  tamarack  will  run  short 
in  the  near  future.  While  it  is  not  in  the  first  rank  of  the  important 
trees  in  this  country,  it  is  useful,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  it  promises  to 
hold  its  ground  against  fires  which  do  grave  injury  to  northern  forests. 
In  the  swamps  where  the  most  of  it  is  found  the  ground  litter  is  too 
damp  to  burn.  The  tree  does  not  grow  rapidly,  but  it  usually  occupies 
lands  which  cannot  be  profitably  devoted  to  agriculture,  and  it  will, 
therefore,  be  let  alone  until  it  reaches  maturity. 

Tamarack  is  a  familiar  tree  in  parks,  and  it  grows  farther  south  than 
its  natural  range  extends.  It  is  not  as  desirable  a  park  tree  as  hemlock, 
spruce,  fir,  the  cedars,  and  some  of  the  pines,  because  its  foliage  is  thin  in 
summer  and  wanting  in  winter.  It  is  in  a  class  with  cypress.  In  the 
early  spring,  however,  while  its  soft  green  needles  are  beginning  to  show 
themselves  in  clusters  along  the  twigs,  its  delicate  and  unusual  appear- 
ance attracts  more  attention  than  its  companion  trees  which  are  always 
in  full  leaf  and  for  that  reason  are  somewhat  monotonous. 


TAMARACK 


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Tamarack 

1 

WESTERN  LARCH 

(Larix  Occidentalis) 

THIS  is  a  magnificent  tree  of  the  Northwest,  and  its  range  lies 
principally  on  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Columbia  river,  in 
Idaho,  Montana,  and  British  Columbia,  but  it  occurs  also  among  the  Blue 
Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  is  the  largest  member  of  the 
larch  genus,  either  in  the  old  world  or  the  new.  The  finest  trees  are  250 
feet  high  with  diameters  of  six  or  eight  feet,  but  sizes  half  of  that  are 
nearer  the  average.  The  trunk  is  of  splendid  form.  In  early  life  it  is 
limby,  but  later  it  prunes  itself,  and  a  long,  tapering  bole  is  developed 
with  a  very  small  crown  of  thin  foliage.  No  other  tree  of  its  size,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  old  sequoias,  has  so  little  foliage  in  proportion  to 
the  trunk. 

The  result  is  apparent  in  the  rate  of  growth  after  the  larch  has 
passed  its  youth.  Sometimes  such  a  tree  does  not  increase  its  trunk 
diameter  as  much  in  seventy-five  years  as  a  vigorous  loblolly  pine  or 
willow  oak  will  in  one  year.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  as  is  well  known, 
grows  by  means  of  food  manufactm-ed  by  the  leaves  and  sent  down  to  be 
transformed  into  wood.  With  so  few  leaves  and  a  trunk  so  large,  the 
slowness  of  growth  is  a  natiural  consequence.  Though  the  annual  rings 
are  usually  quite  narrow,  the  bands  of  summerwood  are  relatively 
broad.  That  accounts  for  the  density  of  larchwood  and  its  great  weight. 
It  is  six  per  cent  heavier  than  longleaf  pine,  and  is  not  much  inferior  in 
strength  and  elasticity.  The  leaves  are  from  one  to  one  and  three- 
quarter  inches  long,  the  cones  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches,  and  the 
seeds  nearly  one-quarter  inch  in  length.  They  are  equipped  with  wings 
of  suflicient  power  to  carry  them  a  short  distance  from  the  parent  tree. 

The  bark  on  young  larches  is  thin,  but  on  large  trunks,  and  near 
the  ground,  it  may  be  five  or  six  inches  thick.  When  a  notch  is  cut  in 
the  trunk  it  collects  a  resin  of  sweetish  taste  which  the  Indians  use  as 
an  article  of  food. 

The  western  larch  reaches  its  best  development  in  northern  Idaho 
and  Montana  on  streams  which  flow  into  Flathead  lake.  The  tree 
prefers  moist  bottom  lands,  but  grows  well  in  other  situations,  at  alti- 
tudes of  from  2,000  to  7,000  feet.  The  figtu-es  given  above  on  the  wood's 
weight,  strength,  and  stifi'ness  show  its  value  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Its  remoteness  from  markets  has  stood  in  the  way  of  large  use,  but  it  has 
been  tried  for  many  purposes  and  with  highly  satisfactory  results.  In 
1910  sawmills  in  the  foinr  western  states  where  it  grows  cut  2.55,186,000 
feet.     Most  of  this  is  used  as  rough  lumber,  but  some  is  made  into 

85 


86  American  Forest  Trees 

furniture,  finish,  boxes,  and  boats.  The  wood  has  several  names, 
though  larch  is  the  most  common.  It  is  otherwise  known  as  tamarack 
and  hackmatack,  which  names  are  oftener  applied  to  the  eastern  tree; 
red  American  larch,  western  tamarack,  and  great  western  larch. 

Some  of  the  annual  cut  of  lumber  credited  to  western  larch  does 
not  belong  to  it.  Lumbermen  have  confused  names  and  mixed  figures 
by  applying  this  tree's  name  to  noble  fir,  which  is  a  different  tree.  If 
the  fir  lumber  listed  as  larch  were  given  its  proper  name,  it  would  result 
in  lowering  the  output  of  larch  as  shown  in  statistical  figures.  In 
spite  of  this,  however,  larch  lumber  fills  an  important  place  in  the  trade 
of  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  it  will  fill  a  much  more  important  place  in 
the  future,  for  a  beginning  has  scarcely  been  made  in  marketing  this 
timber.  The  available  supply  is  large,  but  exact  figures  are  not  avail- 
able. Some  stands  are  dense  and  extensive,  and  the  trees  are  of  large 
size  and  fine  form.  It  is  not  supposed,  however,  that  there  will  be  much 
after  the  present  stand  has  been  cut,  because  a  second  crop  from  trees 
of  so  slow  growth  will  be  far  in  the  future.  Sud worth  says  that  larch 
trees  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  diameter  are  from  250  to  300  years 
old,  and  that  the  ordinary  age  of  these  trees  in  the  forests  of  the  Northwest 
is  from  300  to  500  years;  while  larger  trees  are  600  or  700.  Much  remains 
to  be  learned  concerning  the  ages  of  these  trees  in  different  situations  and 
in  different  parts  of  its  range.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  when  a 
period  covering  two  or  three  centuries  is  required  to  produce  a  sawlog 
of  only  moderate  size,  timber  owners  will  not  look  forward  with  much 
eagerness  to  a  second  growth  forest  of  western  larch. 

The  value  of  the  wood  of  western  larch  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy.  In  the  tables  compiled  for  the  federal  census  of  1880, 
under  direction  of  Charles  S.  Sargent,  its  strength  and  elasticity  were 
shown  to  be  remarkably  high.  The  figures  indicate  that  it  is  about 
thirty-nine  per  cent  stronger  than  white  oak  and  fifty-one  per  cent 
stiffer.  This  places  it  a  little  above  longleaf  pine  in  strength  and  nearly 
equal  to  it  in  stiffness  or  elasticity.  Engineers  have  expressed  doubts 
as  to  the  correctness  of  Sargent's  figures.  They  believe  them  too  high. 
The  samples  tested  by  Sargent  were  six  in  number,  foiu-  of  them  col- 
lected in  Washington  and  two  in  Montana. 

The  wood  of  western  larch  is  heavier  than  longleaf  pine,  and 
approximately  of  the  same  weight  as  white  oak.  It  is  among  the  heaviest, 
if  not  actually  the  heaviest,  of  softwoods  of  the  United  States.  Sargent 
thus  described  the  physical  properties  of  the  wood:  "Heavy,  exceedingly 
hard  and  strong,  rather  coarse  grained,  compact,  satiny,  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish,  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil;  bands  of  small 


American  Forest  Trees  87 

summer  cells  broad,  occupying  fully  half  the  width  of  the  annual 
growth,  very  resinous,  dark-colored,  conspicuous  resin  passages  few, 
obscure;  medullary  rays  few,  thin;  color,  light  bright  red,  the  thin  sap- 
wood  nearly  white."  The  wood  is  described  by  Sud worth:  "Clear, 
reddish  brown,  heavy,  and  fine  grained ;  commercially  valuable ;  very 
durable  in  an  unprotected  state,  differing  greatly  in  this  respect  from 
the  wood  of  the  eastern  larch." 

The  seasoning  of  western  larch  has  given  lumbermen  much 
trouble.  It  checks  badly  and  splinters  rise  from  the  surface  of  boards. 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  this  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  secm-ing  wide  utilization  for  the  wood.  The  structure  of  the  annual 
ring  is  reason  for  believing  that  there  is  slight  adhesion  between  the 
springwood  and  that  of  the  late  season.  Checks  are  very  numerous 
parallel  with  the  growth  rings,  and  splinters  part  from  the  board  along  the 
same  lines.  Standing  timber  is  frequently  windshaken,  and  the  cracks 
follow  the  rings. 

All  of  this  is  presumptive  evidence  that  the  principle  defect  of 
larch  is  a  lack  of  adhesion  between  the  early  and  the  late  wood.  If  that 
is  correct,  it  is  a  fundamental  defect  in  the  growing  tree,  and  is  inherent 
in  the  wood.  No  artificial  treatment  can  wholly  remove  it.  It  should 
not  be  considered  impossible,  however,  to  devise  methods  of  seasoning 
which  would  not  accentuate  the  weaknesses  natural  to  the  wood. 

The  form  of  the  larch's  trunk  is  perfect,  from  the  lumberman's 
viewpoint,  and  its  size  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  It  is  amply  able  to 
perpetuate  its  species,  though  it  consumes  a  great  deal  of  time  in  the 
process.  Abundant  crops  of  seeds  are  borne,  but  only  once  in  several 
years.  It  rarely  bears  seeds  as  early  as  its  twenty-fifth  year,  and  gener- 
ally not  until  it  passes  forty;  but  its  fruitful  period  is  long,  extending 
over  several  centiu-ies.  The  seeds  retain  their  vitality  moderately  well, 
which  is  an  important  consideration  in  view  of  the  tree's  habit  of  opening 
and  closing  its  cones  alternately  as  the  weather  happens  to  be  damp 
or  dry.  The  dispersion  of  seeds  extends  over  a  considerable  part  of  the 
season,  and  the  changing  winds  scatter  them  in  all  directions.  Many 
seeds  fall  on  the  snow  in  winter  to  be  let  down  on  the  damp  ground 
ready  to  germinate  during  the  early  spring.  The  best  germination 
occurs  on  mineral  soil,  and  this  is  often  found  in  areas  recently  bared  by 
fire.  Lodgepole  pine  contends  also  for  this  ground;  but  the  race  be- 
tween the  two  species  is  not  swift  after  the  process  of  scattering  seeds 
has  been  completed;  for  both  are  of  growth  so  exceedingly  slow  that  a 
hundred  years  will  scarcely  tell  which  is  gaining.  In  the  long  run, 
however,  the  larch  outstrips  the  pine  and  becomes  a  larger  tree.  If 
both  start  at  the  same  time,  and  there  is  not  room  for  both,  the  pine 


88  American  Forest  Trees 

will  kill  the  larch  by  shading  it.  The  latter's  thin  foliage  renders  it 
incapable  of  casting  a  shadow  dense  enough  to  hurt  the  pine.  The  best 
areas  for  larch  are  those  so  thoroughly  biuTied  as  to  preclude  the  im- 
mediate heavy  reproduction  of  lodgepole  pine. 

Much  of  the  natural  ranges  of  larch  and  lodgepole  pine  lie  in  the 
national  forests  owned  by  the  government,  and  careful  studies  have 
been  made  in  recent  years  to  determine  the  requirements,  and  the  actual 
and  comparative  values  of  the  two  species.  It  has  been  shown  that 
larch  is  one  of  the  most  intolerant  of  the  western  forest  trees.  It  cannot 
endure  shade.  Its  own  thin  foliage,  where  it  occurs  in  pure  stands,  is 
sufficient  to  shade  off  the  lower  limbs  of  boles,  and  produce  tall,  clean 
trunks;  but  if  a  larch  happens  to  stand  in  the  open,  where  light  is 
abundant,  it  retains  its  branches  almost  to  the  ground.  It  is  more 
intolerant,  even,  than  western  yellow  pine,  which  so  often  grows  in  open, 
parklike  stands. 

Alpine  Larch  {Larix  lyallii)  never  grows  natiu-ally  below  an 
altitude  of  4,000  feet,  and  near  the  southern  border  of  its  range  it  climbs 
to  8,000,  where  it  stands  on  the  brink  of  precipices,  faces  of  cliffs,  and  on 
windswept  summits.  It  is  too  much  exposed  to  storms,  and  has  its 
roots  in  soil  too  sterile  to  develop  symmetrical  forms.  It  is  found  in 
Montana,  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Oregon.  The  finest  trees  are  some- 
times seventy-five  feet  high  and  three  or  four  in  diameter,  but  the 
average  height  ranges  from  forty  to  fifty,  with  diameters  of  twenty 
inches  or  less.  Its  leaves  are  one  and  a  half  inches  or  less  in  length; 
cones  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  bristling  with  hair;  seeds  one -eighth 
of  an  inch  long  with  wings  one-fourth  inch;  wood  heavy,  hard,  and  of 
alight,  reddish  brown  color.  It  is  seldom  used  except  about  mountain 
camps  where  it  is  sometimes  burned  for  fuel  or  is  employed  in  construct- 
ing corrals  for  sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  impossible  for  lumbermen  ever 
to  make  much  use  of  it,  because  it  is  scarce  and  hard  to  get  at. 


RED  CEDAR 


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D  Cedar 

RED  CEDAR 

(Juniperus  Virginiana) 

THIS  widely  distributed  tree  is  called  red  cedar  in  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  and 
Ontario;  cedar  in  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  South  Caro- 
lina, Kentucky,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Ohio ;  savin  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Minnesota;  juniper  in  New  York 
and  Permsylvania;  juniper  bush  in  Minnesota;  cedre  in  Louisiana. 

The  names  as  given  above  indicate  the  tree's  commercial  range. 
It  appears  as  scattered  growth  and  in  doubtful  forms  outside  of  that 
range,  particularly  in  the  West  where  several  cedars  closely  resemble  the 
red  cedar,  yet  differ  sufficiently  from  it  to  give  them  places  as  separate 
species  in  the  lists  of  some  botanists.  They  are  so  listed  by  the  United 
States  Forest  Service;  and  the  following  names  are  given:  Western 
Juniper,  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper,  One  Seed  Juniper,  Mountain  Juniper, 
California  Juniper,  Utah  Juniper,  Drooping  Juniper,  Dwarf  Juniper,  and 
Alligator  Juniper.  These  species  are  not  of  much  importance  from  the 
lumberman's  viewpoint,  yet  they  are  highly  interesting  trees,  and  in  this 
book  will  be  treated  individually. 

The  red  cedar  grows  slowly,  and  thrives  in  almost  any  soil  and 
situation  except  deep  swamps.  It  is  often  classed  as  a  poor-land  species, 
yet  it  does  not  naturally  seek  poor  land.  That  it  is  often  found  in  such 
situations  is  because  it  has  been  crowded  from  better  places  by  stronger 
trees,  and  has  retreated  to  rocky  ridges,  dry  slopes,  and  thin  soils  where 
competitors  are  unable  to  follow.  The  trees  often  stand  wide  apart  or 
solitary,  yet  they  can  grow  in  thickets  almost  impenetrable,  as  they  do 
in  Texas  and  other  southern  states.  It  is  an  oldfield  tree  in  much  of  its 
range.  Birds  plant  the  seeds,  particularly  along  fence  rows.  That  is 
why  long  lines  of  cedars  may  often  be  seen  extending  across  old  fields  or 
deserted  plantations. 

The  extreme  size  attained  by  this  cedar  is  four  feet  in  diameter, 
and  one  hundred  in  height,  but  that  size  was  never  common,  and  at 
present  the  half  of  it  is  above  the  average.  That  which  reaches  market 
is  more  often  under  than  over  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The 
reddish-brown  and  fibrous  bark  may  be  peeled  in  long  strips.  Stringi- 
ness  of  bark  is  characteristic  of  all  the  cedars,  and  typical  of  red  cedar. 

The  wood  is  medium  light  and  is  strong,  considering  that  it  is  very 


92  American  Forest  Trees 

brittle.  Tests  show  it  to  be  eighty  per  cent  as  strong  as  white  oak. 
The  grain  is  very  fine,  even,  and  homogeneous,  except  as  interfered  with 
by  knots.  The  annual  rings  are  narrow,  the  summerwood  narrow  and 
indistinct;  medullary  rays  numerous  but  very  obscure.  The  color  is 
red,  the  thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  The  heart  and  sap  are  sometimes 
intermingled,  and  this  characteristic  is  prominent  in  the  closely-related 
western  species  of  red  cedar.  The  wood  is  easily  worked,  gives  little 
trouble  because  of  warping  and  shrinking,  and  the  heart  is  considered  as 
durable  as  any  other  American  wood.  It  has  a  delicate,  agreeable  frag- 
rance, which  is  especially  marked.  This  odor  is  disagreeable  to  insects, 
and  for  that  reason  chests  and  closets  of  cedar  are  highly  appreciated  as 
storage  places  for  garments  subject  to  the  ravages  of  the  moth  and 
buffalo  bug.  An  extract  from  the  fruit  and  leaves  is  used  in  medicine, 
while  oil  of  red  cedar,  distilled  from  the  wood,  is  used  in  making  perfume. 
Cedar  has  a  sweet  taste.  It  biUTis  badly,  scarcely  being  able  to  support 
a  flame;  it  is  exceedingly  aromatic  and  noisy  when  burning  and  the 
embers  glow  long  in  still  air.  Some  of  the  bungalow  owners  in  Florida 
buy  cedar  fuel  in  preference  to  all  others  for  burning  in  open  fireplaces. 
Its  representative  uses  are  for  posts,  railway  ties,  pails,  sills, 
cigar  boxes,  interior  finish  and  cabinet  making,  but  its  most  general 
use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils,  for  which  its  fine,  straight  grain 
and  soft  texture  are  peculiarly  adapted.  The  farther  south  cedar  is 
found,  the  softer  and  clearer  it  is.  In  the  North,  in  ornamental  trees,  it 
is  very  hard,  slow-growing,  and  knotty.  It  shows  but  a  small  percentage 
of  clear  lumber.  In  eastern  Tennessee  there  were  considerable  quantities 
of  red  cedar  brake  that  were  for  years  considered  of  little  value.  About 
the  only  way  the  wood  was  employed  a  few  years  ago  was  in  fence  rails 
and  posts,  fuel,  and  charcoal.  Of  late  people  in  localities  where  cedar 
grows  in  any  abundance  have  awakened  to  its  value,  and  cedar  fences 
are  rapidly  disappearing,  owing  to  the  high  prices  now  paid  for  the  wood, 
and  the  excellent  demand.  On  no  other  southern  wood  has  such 
depredation  been  practiced.  Because  of  its  lightness  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  be  worked,  it  has  been  used  for  purposes  for  which  other 
and  less  valuable  woods  were  well  adapted.  On  account  of  its  slow 
growth,  its  complete  exhaustion  has  often  been  predicted,  but  a  second 
growth  has  appeared  which,  though  much  inferior  to  the  virgin  timber, 
can  be  used  in  many  ways  to  excellent  advantage.  Instead  of  the  huge 
piles  of  cedar  flooring,  chest  boards,  and  smooth  railings  of  the  old  days, 
one  now  sees  at  points  of  distribution  great  piles  of  knotty,  rough  poles, 
ten  to  forty  feet  long,  which  years  ago  would  have  been  discarded. 
Today  they  represent  bridge  piling,  the  better  and  smoother  among  them 
being  used  for  telephone  and  telegraph  poles. 


American  Forest  Trees  93 

Middle  Tennessee  has  produced  more  red  cedar  than  any  other 
part  of  the  United  States,  but  the  bulk  of  production  has  been  confined 
to  a  few  counties,  which  produce  a  higher  class  and  more  aromatic 
variety  of  wood  than  that  found  elsewhere.  A  century  ago  these 
counties  abounded  in  splendid  forests  of  cedar.  The  early  settlers  built 
their  cabins  of  cedar  logs,  sills,  studding,  and  rafters;  their  smoke 
houses  were  built  of  them;  their  bams;  even  the  roofs  were  shingled 
with  cedar  and  the  rooms  and  porches  floored  with  the  sweet-scented 
wood.  Not  many  years  ago  trees  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter  were 
often  found,  but  the  days  are  past  when  timber  like  that  can  be  had 
anywhere. 

Although  the  most  general  use  at  the  present  time  is  for  lead 
pencils,  few  people  who  sharpen  one  and  smell  the  fragrant  wood,  stop 
to  wonder  where  it  came  from.  One  would  smile  were  it  suggested  to 
him  that  perhaps  his  pencil  was  formerly  part  of  some  Tennessee  farmer's 
worm  fence.  The  best  timber  obtained  now  is  hewn  into  export  logs 
and  shipped  to  Europe,  particularly  Germany,  where  a  great  quantity  is 
converted  into  pencils.  The  red  wood  is  made  into  the  higher  grades 
and  the  sap  or  streaked  wood  is  used  for  the  cheaper  varieties  and  for  pen 
holders.  The  smaller  and  inferior  logs  are  cut  into  slats,  while  odds  and 
ends,  cutoffs,  etc.,  are  collected  and  sold  by  the  hundred  pounds  to 
pencil  factories.  There  are  many  such  factories  in  the  United  States 
now,  as  well  as  in  Europe,  and  pencil  men  are  scouring  the  cedar  sections 
to  buy  all  they  can.  The  farmer  who  has  a  red  cedar  picket  or  worm 
fence  can  sell  it  to  these  companies  at  a  round  price.  Pencil  men  are 
even  going  back  over  tracts  from  which  the  timber  was  cut  twenty-five 
years  ago,  buying  up  the  stumps.  .When  the  wood  was  plentiful 
lumbermen  were  not  frugal,  and  usually  cut  down  a  tree  about  two  feet 
above  the  ground,  allowing  the  best  part  of  it  to  be  wasted. 

The  German  and  Austrian  pencil  makers  foresaw  a  shortage  in 
American  red  cedar,  and  many  years  ago  planted  large  areas  to  provide 
for  the  time  of  scarcity.  The  planted  timber  is  now  large  enough  for 
use,  but  the  wood  has  been  a  disappointment.  It  does  not  possess  the 
softness  and  brittleness  which  give  so  high  value  to  the  forest  cedar  of 
this  country.  As  far  as  can  be  seen,  when  present  pencil  cedar  has  been 
exhausted,  there  will  be  little  more  produced  of  like  grade.  It  grows  so 
slowly  that  owners  will  not  wait  for  trees  to  become  old,  but  sell  them 
while  young  for  posts  and  poles. 

One  of  the  earliest  demands  for  red  cedar  was  for  woodenware 
made  of  staves,  such  as  buckets,  kegs,  keelers,  small  tubs,  and  firkins. 
Material  for  the  manufacture  of  such  wares  was  among  the  exports  to 
the  West  Indies  before  the  Revolutionary  war.     The  ware  was  no  less 


94  American  Forest  Trees 

popular  in  this  country,  and  the  home-made  articles  were  in  all  neighbor- 
hoods in  the  red  cedar's  range.  Scarcity  qf  suitable  wood  limits  the 
manufacture  of  such  wares  now,  but  they  are  still  in  use. 

Cedar  was  long  one  of  the  best  woods  for  skiffs  and  other  light 
boats,  and  it  was  occasionally  employed  in  shipbuilding  for  the  upper 
parts  of  vessels.  A  little  of  it  is  still  used  as  trim  and  finish,  particularly 
for  canoes,  motor  boats,  and  yachts. 

The  early  clothes  chest  makers  selected  clear  lumber,  because  it 
could  be  had  and  was  considered  to  be  better;  but  modem  chest  manu- 
facturers who  cannot  prociu-e  clear  stock,  make  a  merit  of  necessity,  and 
use  boards  filled  with  knots.  The  wood  is  finished  with  oils,  but  the 
natural  colors  remain,  and  the  knots  give  the  chest  a  rustic  and  pleasing 
appearance. 

Southern  Red  Juniper  (Juniperus  barbadensts)  so  closely  resembles  the  red 
cedar  with  which  it  is  associated  that  the  two  were  formerly  considered  the  same 
species,  and  most  people  familiar  with  both  notice  no  difference.  However,  botanists 
clearly  distinguish  the  two.  The  southern  red  cedar's  range  is  much  smaller  than  the 
other's.  It  grows  from  Georgia  to  the  Indian  river,  Florida,  in  swamps.  It  is  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Apalachicola  river,  forming  dense  thickets.  Its  average  size  is  much 
under  that  of  the  red  cedar,  but  its  wood  is  not  dissimilar.  It  has  been  used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  far  as  it  has  been  used  at  all.  One  of  the  largest  demands  upon  it 
has  been  for  lead  pencils.  Those  who  bought  and  sold  it,  generally  supposed  they  were 
dealing  in  the  common  red  cedar. 


NORTHERN  WHITE  CEDAR 


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Northern  White  Cedar 

NORTHERN  WHITE  CEDAR 

{Thuja  Occidentalis) 

THIS  tree  is  designated  as  northern  white  cedar  because  there  is 
also  a  southern  white  cedar,  (Chanicecyparis  thyoides)  and  the 
boundaries  of  their  ranges  approach  pretty  closely.  The  name  occi- 
dentalis, meaning  western,  applied  to  the  northern  white  cedar  is  em- 
ployed by  botanists  to  distinguish  it  from  a  similar  cedar  in  Asia,  which  is 
called  orientalis,  or  eastern. 

The  American  species  has  several  names,  as  is  usual  with  trees 
which  grow  in  different  regions.  It  is  called  arborvitse  in  Maine, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  and  Ontario.  White 
cedar  is  a  name  often  used  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Rhode 
Island,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Ontario.  In  Maine,  Vermont,  and 
New  York  it  is  called  cedar.  In  New  York,  and  where  cultivated  in 
England,  American  arborvitae  is  the  name  applied  to  it.  The  Indians 
in  New  York  knew  it  as  feather-leaf.  In  Delaware  the  name  is 
abridged  to  vitae. 

The  tree  has  been  widely  planted,  and  under  the  influence  of 
cultivation  it  runs  quickly  into  varieties,  of  which  forty-five  are  listed 
by  nurserymen.  It  is  a  northern  species  which  follows  the  Appalachian 
mountains  southward  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  grows 
from  New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Lake  States. 

The  bark  of  arborvitae  is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red  on  the  branch- 
lets;  it  is  thin,  and  cracks  into  ridges  with  stringy,  rough  edges;  the 
branchlets  are  very  smooth. 

In  general  appearance  the  tree  is  conical  and  compact,  with  short 
branches;  it  attains  a  height  of  from  twenty-five  to  seventy  feet,  and  a 
diameter  of  from  one  to  three  feet.  It  thrives  best  in  low,  swampy 
land,  along  the  borders  of  streams. 

The  wood  of  arborvitae  is  soft,  brittle,  light  and  weak;  it  is  very' 
inflammable.  The  fact  that  it  is  durable,  even  in  contact  with  the  soil, 
permits  its  use  for  railway  ties,  telegraph  poles,  posts,  fencing,  shingles 
and  boats.  However,  the  trunk  is  so  shaped  that  it  is  seldom  used  for 
lumber,  but  oftener  for  poles  and  posts,  the  lower  section  being  flattened 
into  ties.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  seasoned  wood  weighs  approximately 
nineteen  pounds.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  becoming  darker  with 
exposure;  the  sapwood  is  thin  and  nearly  white,  with  fine  grain. 


98  American  Forest  Trees 

The  northern  white  cedar  varies  greatly  in  size  and  shape,  depend- 
ing on  the  soil,  climate,  and  situation.  Though  it  is  usually  associated 
with  swamps  in  the  North,  it  adapts  itself  to  quite  different  situations. 
It  grows  in  narrow,  rocky  ravines,  on  stony  ridges,  and  it  clings  to  the 
faces  of  cliffs,  or  hangs  on  their  simimits  as  tenaciously  as  the  western 
juniper  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  However,  little  good  timber 
is  produced  by  this  species  on  rocky  soils.  Trees  in  such  situations  are 
short,  crooked,  and  limby. 

The  wood  of  the  northern  white  cedar  possesses  a  peculiar  tough- 
ness which  is  seen  in  its  wearing  qualities.  A  thin  shaving,  such  as  a 
carpenter's  plane  makes,  may  be  folded,  laid  on  an  anvil,  and  struck 
repeatedly  with  a  hammer,  without  breaking.  It  is  claimed  for  it  that 
it  will  stand  a  severer  test  of  that  kind  than  any  other  American  wood. 
Toughness  and  wearing  qualities  combined  make  it  an  admirable  wood 
for  planking  and  decking  for  small  boats.  Its  exceptionally  light  weight 
is  an  additional  factor  as  a  boat  building  material.  The  Indians  knew 
how  to  work  it  into  frames  for  bark  canoes.  Its  lightness  appealed  to 
them;  but  the  ease  with  which  they  could  work  it  with  their  primitive 
tools  was  more  important.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  wood  to  part 
readily  along  the  rings  of  atmual  growth.  The  Indian  was  able  to  split 
canoe  ribs  with  a  stone  maul,  by  pounding  a  cedar  billet  until  it  parted 
along  the  growth  rings  and  was  reduced  to  very  thin  slats. 

The  property  of  this  cedar  which  appealed  to  the  Indians  is  disliked 
by  the  sawmill  man.  It  is  hard  to  make  thin  lumber  that  will  hang 
together.  The  tendency  to  part  along  the  growth  rings  develops 
wind-shake  while  the  tree  is  standing.  About  nine  trees  in  ten  are  so 
defective  from  shake  that  little  good  lumber  can  be  made  from  them. 
It  is  a  common  saying,  which  probably  applies  in  certain  localities  only, 
that  a  thousand  feet  of  white  cedar  must  be  sawed  to  get  one  hundred 
feet  of  good  lumber. 

It  is  good  material  for  small  cooperage  such  as  buckets,  pails,  and 
tubs,  and  has  been  long  used  for  that  purpose  in  the  northern  states. 

It  was  once  laid  in  large  quantities  for  paving  blocks.  Hundreds  of 
miles  of  streets  of  northern  cities  were  paved  with  round  blocks  sawed 
from  trunks  of  trees  from  five  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  They  were  not 
usually  treated  with  chemicals  to  prevent  decay,  but  they  gave  service 
ranging  from  six  to  twelve  years.  They  are  less  used  now  than  formerly. 
Southern  yellow  pine  has  largely  taken  the  cedar's  place  as  paving 
material.  Much  northern  cedar  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
bored  pipe  for  municipal  waterworks,  shops,  salt  works,  paper  mills, 
and  other  factories. 

The  early  settlers  of  New  Jersey  and  eastern  Pennsylvania  made 


American  Forest  Trees  99 

a  rheumatism  ointment  by  bruising  the  leaves  and  molding  them  with 
lard.  This  is  probably  not  made  now,  but  pharmacists  distill  an  oil  from 
twigs  and  wood,  and  make  a  tinctm-e  of  the  leaves  which  they  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  pulmonary  and  other  medicines. 

There  is  little  likelihood  that  northern  white  cedar  will  ever  cease 
to  be  a  commercial  wood  in  this  country.  It  will  become  scarcer,  but 
its  manner  of  growth  is  the  best  guarantee  that  it  will  hold  its  place.  It 
lives  in  swamps,  and  the  land  is  not  in  demand  for  any  other  purpose. 

One-Seed  Juniper  {Juniperus  monosperma)  is  also  called  naked-seed  jumper. 
Its  range  lies  in  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  Utah,  and  Arizona.  It  attains  its 
greatest  development  in  the  bottoms  of  canyons  in  northern  Arizona.  It  is  a 
scrawny  desert  tree  which  lives  in  adversity  but  holds  its  ground  for  centuries,  if  fire 
does  not  cut  its  career  short.  Its  growth  is  too  scattered  to  attract  lumbermen,  and 
the  form  of  its  trunk  is  uninviting.  It  may  reach  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and  a 
diameter  of  three,  but  that  is  above  the  average  in  the  best  of  its  range.  The  desert 
Indians  make  the  most  of  one-seed  juniper.  They  weave  its  stringy  bark  into  sleeping 
mats,  rough  blankets,  and  saddle  girts.  They  make  cords  and  ropes  of  it  for  use 
where  great  strength  is  not  required,  such  as  leashes  for  leading  dogs,  strands  with 
which  to  tie  bundles  on  the  backs  of  their  squaws,  and  cords  for  fastening  their 
wigwam  poles  together.  They  likewise  weave  the  bark  into  pokes  and  pouches  for 
storing  and  carrying  their  dried  meat  and  mesquite  beans.  The  juniper  berries  are 
an  article  of  diet  and  commerce  with  the  Indians,  who  mix  them  with  divers  ingre- 
dients, pulp  them  in  stone  mortars,  and  bake  them  in  cakes  which  become  the  greatest 
delicacy  on  their  bill  of  fare.  White  men,  when  driven  to  it  by  starvation,  have 
sustained  life  by  making  food  of  the  berries.  A  small  quantity  of  one-seed  juniper 
reaches  woodworkers  in  Texas.  The  lumber  is  short  and  rough.  The  numerous 
knots  are  generally  much  darker  than  the  body  of  the  wood.  That  is  not  necessarily 
a  defect,  for  in  making  clothes  chests,  the  striking  contrast  in  color  between  the  knots, 
and  the  other  wood  gives  the  article  a  peculiar  and  attractive  appearance.  The 
trunks  are  sharply  buttressed  and  deeply  creased.  Sometimes  the  folds  of  bark 
within  the  creases  almost  reach  the  center  of  the  tree.  The  sapwood  is  thin,  the  heart- 
wood  irregular  in  color.  Some  is  darker  than  the  heartwood  of  southern  red  cedar, 
other  is  clouded  and  mottled,  pale  yellow.cream-colored,  the  shade  of  slate,  or  streaked 
with  various  tints.  The  wood  can  be  economically  worked  only  as  small  pieces.  It 
takes  a  soft  and  pleasing  finish.  It  is  a  lathe  wood  and  shows  to  best  advantage  as 
balusters,  ornaments,  grill  spindles  and  small  posts,  Indian  clubs,  dumb-bells,  balls, 
and  lodge  gavels.  It  has  been  made  into  small  game  boards  with  fine  efi'ect,  and  it  is 
an  excellent  material  for  small  picture  frames.  Furniture  makers  put  it  to  use  in 
several  ways,  and  it  has  been  recommended  for  small  musical  instruments  where  the 
variegated  colors  can  be  displayed  to  excellent  advantage.  At  the  best  it  can  never 
be  more  than  a  minor  species,  because  it  is  difficult  of  access  in  the  remote  deserts, 
and  it  is  not  abundant. 

Mountain  Juniper  {Juniperus  sabinoides)  is  a  Texas  tree,  occupying  a  range 
southward  and  westward  of  the  Colorado  river.  It  has  several  local  names,  rock 
cedar  being  a  favorite.  This  name  is  due  to  the  tree's  habit  of  growing  on  rocky 
ridges  and  among  ledges  where  soil  is  scarce.  It  is  called  juniper  cedar,  and  juniper. 
Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the  tree  may  attain  a  height  of  100  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  two,  but  it  nearly  always  grows  where  conditions  are  adverse,  and  its 


100  American  Forest  Trees 

size  and  form  change  to  conform  to  circumstances.  It  is  often  small  and  ragged.  Its 
lead-colored  bark  is  apt  to  attract  attention  on  account  of  its  woeful  appearance, 
hanging  in  strings  and  tatters  which  persistently  cling  to  the  trunk  in  spite  of  whip- 
ping winds.  When  the  tree  is  cut  for  fuel,  or  for  any  other  purpose,  the  ragged  bark 
is  occasionally  pulled  off  and  is  tied  in  bales  or  bundles  to  be  sold  for  kindling.  When 
the  mountain  juniper  is  taken  from  its  native  wilds  and  planted  where  environments 
are  different,  it  sometimes  assumes  fantastic  forms.  It  has  been  planted  for  orna- 
ment on  the  low,  flat  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  though  it  lives 
and  grows,  it  often  takes  on  a  peculiar  appearance.  The  trunks  resemble  twisted 
and  interwoven  bundles  of  lead-colored  vines,  buttressed,  fluted,  and  gnarled.  The 
branches  lose  their  upright  position,  and  hang  in  careless  abandon,  with  drooping 
festoons.  In  winter  the  wind  whips  most  of  the  foliage  from  them.  The  leaves 
become  brittle  and  may  be  easily  brushed  from  the  twigs  by  a  stroke  of  the  hand. 
Some  of  the  planted  trees  have  trunks  so  deeply  creased  as  to  be  divided  in  two 
separate  stems.  This  very  nearly  happens  with  some  of  the  wild  trees  among  the 
western  mountains.  The  sapwood  of  mountain  juniper  is  very  thin.  The  average 
tree  cannot  be  profitably  cut  into  lumber  of  the  usual  dimensions  because  of  the  odd- 
shaped  and  irregular  trunk.  It  lends  itself  more  economically  to  the  manufacture 
of  articles  made  up  of  small  pieces.  Some  of  the  wood  is  extremely  beautiful,  having 
the  color  and  figure  of  French  walnut;  but  there  is  great  difference  in  the  figure  and 
color,  and  the  wood  of  one  tree  is  not  a  sure  guide  to  what  another  may  be.  Boards 
a  foot  wide,  or  even  less,  may  show  several  figures  and  colors.  Some  pieces  suggest 
variegated  marble ;  others  are  like  plain  red  cedar;  some  are  light  red  in  color,  others 
have  a  tinge  of  blue.  It  varies  greatly  in  hardness,  even  in  the  same  tree.  Part  of 
it  may  be  soft  and  brittle  enough  for  lead  pencils;  another  part  may  be  hard  and 
tough.  Clothes  chests  have  been  made  of  it,  of  most  peculiar  appearance — resembl- 
ing crazy  quilts  of  subdued  colors.  Sometimes  the  heartwood  and  the  sapwood  are 
inextricably  mixed,  both  being  found  in  all  parts  of  the  trunk  from  the  heart  out.  On 
the  whole,  the  tree  can  never  have  much  importance  as  a  source  of  lumber,  but  it  is 
a  most  interesting  member  of  the  cedar  group. 


SOUTHERN  WHITE  CEDAR 


SOUTHERN  WHITE  CEDAR 

{Cham(£cyparis  Thyoides) 

THIS  tree  is  called  southern  white  cedar  to  distinguish  it  from 
northern  white  cedar  or  arborvitse.  When  there  is  little  likelihood 
of  confusion,  the  name  white  cedar  is  applied  locally  in  different  parts  of 
its  range  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida.  It  is  a  persistent  swamp  tree 
and  on  that  account  has  been  called  swamp  cedar;  but  that  name  alone 
would  not  distinguish  it  from  the  northern  white  cedar,  for  both  grow 
in  swamps;  but  it  does  separate  it  from  red  cedar  which  keeps  away  from 
swamps.  The  ranges  of  the  two  are  side  by  side  from  New  England  to 
Florida.  Post  cedar  is  a  common  name  for  it  in  Delaware  and  New 
Jersey,  because  of  the  important  place  it  has  long  filled  as  fence  material; 
but  again,  the  name  does  not  set  it  apart  from  red  cedar  or  northern 
white  cedar,  for  both  are  used  for  posts.  The  only  name  thus  far 
applied,  which  clearly  distinguishes  it  from  associated  cedars,  is  southern 
white  cedar.  Its  range  extends  northward  to  Maine,  but  the  tree's 
chief  commercial  importance  has  been  in  New  Jersey  and  southward  to 
North  Carolina,  very  near  the  coast.  Somehow,  it  seems  to  skip  Georgia 
where  no  one  has  reported  it  for  many  years,  though  there  is  historical 
evidence  that  it  once  grew  in  that  state.  It  grows  as  far  west  as  Miss- 
issippi, but  is  scarce. 

The  small  leaves  remain  green  two  years  and  then  turn  brown  but 
adhere  to  the  branches  several  years  longer.  The  fruit  is  about  one- 
fourth  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  small  seeds  are  equipped  with  wings. 

The  wood  is  among  the  lightest  in  this  country.  It  is  only  moder- 
ately strong  and  stiff.  The  tree  usually  grows  slowly.  Fifty  years  may 
be  required  to  produce  a  fence  post,  but  under  favorable  conditions 
results  somewhat  better  than  that  may  be  expected.  The  summerwood 
of  the  yearly  ring  is  narrow,  dark  in  color,  and  conspicuous,  making  the 
counting  of  the  rings  an  easy  matter.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous 
but  thin.  When  the  sap  is  cut  tangentially  in  very  thin  layers  it  is 
white  and  semi-transparent,  presenting  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  oiled  paper.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  growing 
darker  with  exposure.  The  wood  is  easily  worked,  and  is  very  durable 
in  contact  with  the  soil.  Fence  posts  of  this  wood  have  been  reported 
to  stand  fifty  years,  and  shingles  are  said  to  last  longer.  Trees  reach  a 
height  of  eighty  feet  and  diameter  of  four;  but  such  are  of  the  largest  size. 
Great  numbers  are  cut  for  poles  and  posts  which  are  little  more  than  a 
foot  in  diameter.  Few  forest  trees  grow  in  denser  stands  than  this.  It 
often  takes  possession  of  swamps,  crowds  out  all  other  trees,  and  develops 

103 


104  American  Forest  Trees 

thickets  so  dense  as  to  be  almost  impenetrable.  Southern  white  cedar 
is  cut  in  ten  or  twelve  states,  but  the  annual  supply  is  not  known, 
because  mills  generally  report  all  cedars  as  one,  and  the  regions  which 
produce  this,  produce  one  or  more  other  species  of  cedar  also.  It  has 
held  its  place  nearly  three  hundred  years,  and  much  interesting  history 
is  connected  with  it.  A  considerable  part  of  the  Revolutionary  war 
was  fought  with  powder  made  from  white  cedar  charcoal  burned  in 
New  Jersey  and  Delaware.  However,  that  was  by  no  means  the  earliest 
place  filled  by  this  wood. 

Two  hundred  years  ago  in  North  Carolina  John  Lawson  wrote  of 
its  use  for  "yards,  topmasts,  booms,  bowsprits  for  boats,  shingles,  and 
poles."  It  was  cut  for  practically  the  same  purposes  in  New  Jersey  at 
an  earlier  period,  and  160  years  ago  Gottleib  Mittelberger,  when  he 
visited  Philadelphia,  declared  that  white  cedar  was  being  cut  at  a  rate 
which  would  soon  exhaust  the  supply.  But  that  prophecy,  like  similar 
predictions  that  oak  and  red  cedar  were  about  gone,  proved  not  well 
founded.  Seventy  years  after  the  imminent  exhaustion  of  this  wood 
was  foretold,  William  Cobbett,  an  English  traveler,  declared  with 
evident  exaggeration  that  "all  good  houses  in  the  United  States"  were 
roofed  with  white  cedar  shingles. 

After  boat  building,  the  first  general  use  of  the  southern  white 
cedar  was  for  fences  and  farm  buildings,  and  doubtless  twenty  times  as 
much  went  to  the  farms  as  to  the  boat  yards.  In  all  regions  where  the 
wood  was  convenient,  little  other  was  employed  as  fencing  material,  and 
many  of  the  earliest  houses  in  New  Jersey  and  some  in  Pennsylvania  were 
constructed  almost  wholly  of  this  wood.  Small  trees  which  would  split 
two,  three,  and  foiur  rails  to  the  cut,  were  mauled  by  thousands  to  enclose 
the  farms.  The  bark  soon  dropped  oS',  or  was  removed,  and  the  light 
rails  quickly  air-dried,  and  decay  made  little  impression  on  them  for 
many  years.  The  larger  trunks  were  rived  for  shingles  or  were  sawed 
into  lumber.  About  1750  the  use  of  round  cedar  logs  for  houses  and 
bams  began  to  give  way  to  sawed  lumber.  It  was  an  ideal  milling 
timber,  for  the  logs  were  symmetrical,  clear,  and  easily  handled.  North 
Carolina  sawmills  were  at  work  on  this  timber  many  years  before  the 
Revolution.  It  was  acceptable  material  for  doors,  window  frames, 
rafters,  and  floors,  but  especially  for  shingles  which  were  split  with  frow 
and  mallet,  and  were  from  twenty-foiu-  to  twenty-seven  inches  long. 
They  were  known  in  market  as  juniper  shingles  and  sold  at  four  and 
five  dollars  a  thousand.  About  1750  builders  in  Philadelphia  were 
criticized  because  they  constructed  houses  with  no  provision  for  other 
than  white  cedar  roofs;  the  walls  being  too  weak  for  heavier  material 
which  would  have  to  be  substituted  when  cedar  could  be  no  longer 


American  Forest  Trees  105 

procured.  Philadelphia  was  not  alone  in  its  preference  for  cedar 
roofs.  Large  shipments  of  shingles  were  going  from  New  Jersey  to  New 
York,  and  even  to  the  West  Indies  earlier  than  1750. 

Southern  white  cedar  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  American  wood 
used  for  organ  pipes.  The  resonance  of  cedar  shingles  under  a  pattering 
rain  suggested  this  use  to  Mittelberger  when  he  visited  America,  and  he 
tried  the  wood  with  such  success  that  he  pronounced  it  the  best  that  he 
knew  of  for  organ  pipes. 

Coopers  were  among  the  early  users  of  white  cedar.  The  "cedar 
coopers  of  Philadelphia"  were  famous  in  their  day.  They  used  this 
wood  and  also  red  cedar  {Juniperus  virginiana),  and  their  wares  occupied 
an  important  place  in  domestic  and  some  foreign  markets.  Small 
vessels  prevailed,  such  as  pails,  chums,  firkins,  tubs,  keelers,  piggins, 
noggins,  and  kegs.  The  ware  was  handsome,  strong,  durable,  and  light 
in  weight.  Oil  merchants,  particularly  those  who  dealt  in  whale  oil 
which  was  once  an  important  commodity,  bought  tanks  of  southern 
white  cedar.     It  is  a  dense  wood  and  seepage  is  small. 

A  peculiar  superstition  once  prevailed,  and  has  not  wholly  disap- 
peared at  this  day,  that  white  cedar  possessed  powerful  healing  proper- 
ties. It  was  thought  that  water  was  purified  by  standing  in  a  cedar 
bucket,  and  even  that  a  liquid  was  improved  by  simply  running  through 
a  spigot  of  this  wood.  Some  eastern  towns  at  an  early  period  laid  cedar 
water  mains,  partly  because  the  wood  was  known  to  be  durable,  and 
partly  because  it  was  supposed  to  exercise  some  favorable  influence  upon 
the  water  flowing  through  the  pipes.  It  was  even  believed  that  standing 
trees  purified  the  swamps  in  which  they  grew.  Vessels  putting  to  sea 
from  Chesapeake  bay,  sometimes  made  special  effort  to  fill  their  water 
casks  with  water  from  the  Dismal  swamp,  where  cedars  grew  abundantly 
in  the  stagnant  logoons. 

About  100  years  ago  it  was  found  that  whole  forests  of  cedar  had 
been  submerged  in  New  Jersey  during  prehistoric  times,  and  that  deep 
in  swamps  the  trunks  of  trees  were  buried  out  of  sight.  No  one  knows 
how  long  the  prostrate  trees  had  lain  beneath  the  accumulation  of  peat 
and  mud,  but  the  wood  was  sound.  Mining  the  cedar  became  an  im- 
portant industry  in  some  of  the  large  swamps,  and  it  has  not  ended  yet. 
The  wood  is  sound  enough  for  shingles  and  lumber,  though  it  has  been 
buried  for  centiu-ies,  as  is  proved  by  the  age  of  the  forests  which  grew 
over  the  submerged  logs.  Sometimes  a  log  which  has  lain  under  water 
hundreds  of  years,  rises  to  the  surface  by  its  own  buoyancy  when  pressure 
from  above  is  removed.  This  is  remarkable  and  shows  how  long  a  time 
this  cedar  resists  complete  waterlogging.  The  wood  of  green  cedar  has  a 
strong  odor,  and  that  characteristic  remains  with  the  submerged  trunks. 


106  American  Forest  Trees 

Experienced  men  who  have  been  long  engaged  in  mining  the  timber, 
are  able  to  tell  by  the  odor  of  a  chip  brought  to  the  surface  from  a  deeply 
submerged  log  whether  the  wood  is  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  be 
worth  recovering  and  manufacturing.  Trunks  six  feet  in  diameter 
have  been  brought  to  the  surface.  Few  if  any  living  white  cedars  of 
that  size  exist  now. 

Many  of  the  early  uses  of  southern  white  cedar  have  continued  till 
the  present  time,  but  in  much  smaller  quantities.  Fence  rails  are  no 
longer  made  of  it;  shingles  and  cooperage  have  declined.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  now  has  some  uses  which  were  unknown  in  early  times,  such  as 
telephone  and  telegraph  poles,  crossties,  and  piling  for  railroad  bridges 
and  culverts. 

The  supply  of  southern  white  cedar  is  not  large,  and  it  is  being  cut 
faster  than  it  is  growing.  The  deep  swamps  where  it  grows  protect 
white  cedar  forests  from  fire,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  more  fortunate  than 
many  other  species.  Not  even  cypress  can  successfully  compete  with  it 
for  possession  of  water  soaked  morasses.  It  does  not  promise  great 
things  for  the  future,  for  it  will  never  be  extensively  planted.  Its  range 
has  been  pretty  definitely  fixed  by  nattore  to  deep  swamps  near  the 
Atlantic  coast.  Within  those  limits  it  will  be  of  ^ome  importance  for  a 
long  time.  Where  it  finds  its  most  congenial  surroundings,  little  else 
that  is  profitable  to  man  ^yill  grow.  This  will  save  it  from  utter  ex- 
termination, because  much  of  the  land  which  it  occupies  will  never  be 
wanted  for  anything  else. 


INCENSE  CEDAR 


INCENSE  CEDAR 

(Libocedrus  Decurrens) 

IN  California  and  Oregon  this  tree  is  known  as  white  cedar,  cedar,  and 
incense  cedar;  in  Nevada  and  California  it  is  called  post  cedar  and 
juniper,  and  in  other  localities  it  is  red  cedar  and  California  post  cedar. 
It  is  a  species  of  such  strong  characteristics  that  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
confused  with  any  other.  Though  different  names  may  be  applied  to  it, 
the  identity  of  the  tree  is  always  clear. 

Its  range  extends  north  and  south  nearly  1,000  miles,  from  Oregon 
to  Lower  California.  It  is  a  mountain  species,  and  it  faces  the  Pacific 
ocean  in  most  of  its  range.  In  the  North  it  occupies  the  western  slope 
of  the  Cascade  mountains  in  southern  Oregon  and  northern  California; 
and  it  grows  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierras  for  five  hundred  miles,  at 
altitudes  of  from  4,000  to  8,000  feet,  where  it  is  mixed  with  sugar  pine, 
western  yellow  pine,  white  fir,  and  sequoias. 

It  is  a  fine,  shapely  tree,  except  that  the  butt  is  much  enlarged. 
It  has  the  characteristic  form  of  a  deep  swamp  tree,  but  it  has  nothing  to 
do  with  swamps.  Its  best  development  is  on  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains, where  swamps  are  few,  and  the  incense  cedar  avoids  them.  It 
occupies  dry  ridges  and  slopes,  but  not  sterile  ones.  It  must  have  as 
good  soil  as  the  sugar  pine  demands.  Its  height  when  mature  ranges 
from  seventy-five  to  125  feet,  diameter  four  feet  from  the  ground,  from 
three  to  six  feet,  but  some  trees  are  larger.  It  is  not  a  rapid  grower, 
but  it  maintains  its  vigor  a  long  time.  As  an  average,  it  increases  its 
diameter  an  inch  in  from  seven  to  ten  years. 

The  wood  is  dense.  It  contains  no  pores  large  enough  to  be  seen 
with  an  ordinary  reading  glass.  The  medullary  rays  are  so  small  as  to 
be  generally  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  but  when  magnified  they  are 
shown  to  be  thin  and  numerous.  The  summerwood  forms  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  annual  ring.  The  wood  is  nearly  as  light  as  white  pine,  is 
moderately  strong,  is  brittle,  straight  grained,  the  heartwood  is  reddish, 
the  thick  sapwood  nearly  white.  It  is  an  easy  wood  to  work,  and  in 
contact  with  the  soil  it  is  very  durable. 

The  incense  cedar  is  the  only  representative  of  its  genus  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  many  relatives  in  the  pine  family,  but  no  near 
ones.  Its  kin  are  natives  of  Formosa,  China,  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea, 
and  Patagonia. 

The  name  incense  cedar  refers  to  the  odor  of  the  wood  rather  than 
of  the  leaves.  Those  who  work  with  freshly  cut  wood  are  liable  to  attacks 
of  headache,  due  to  the  odor;  but  some  men  are  not  affected  by  it. 


110  American  Forest  Trees 

The  forest  grown  tree  is  of  beautiful  proportions.  Unless  much 
crowded  for  room,  it  is  a  tall,  graceful  cone,  the  branches  drooping 
slightly,  and  forming  thick  masses.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains, 
within  the  range  of  this  cedar,  the  winter  snows  are  very  heavy.  It  is 
not  unusual  for  two  or  three  feet  of  very  wet  snow  to  fall  in  a  single  day. 
The  incense  cedar's  drooping  branches  shed  the  snow  like  a  tent  roof,  and 
a  limb  broken  or  seriously  deformed  by  weight  of  snow  is  seldom  seen. 
Deer  and  other  wild  animals,  when  surprised  by  a  heavy  fall  of  snow, 
seek  the  shelter  of  an  incense  cedar,  if  one  can  be  found,  and  there  lie  in 
security  until  the  storm  passes. 

It  is  a  tree  which  does  fairly  well  in  cultivation,  and  several  varieties 
have  been  developed.  It  lives  through  the  cold  of  a  New  England 
winter.  Its  cones  are  about  three-fourths  inch  in  length,  and  ripen  in  the 
autumn. 

Incense  cedar  has  filled  an  important  place  in  the  development  of 
the  great  central  valley  of  California,  where  it  has  supplied  more  fence 
posts  than  any  other  tree.  Posts  of  redwood  have  been  its  chief  com- 
petitor, but  generally  the  region  has  been  divided,  and  each  tree  has 
supplied  its  part.  The  redwood's  field  has  been  the  coast,  the  cedar's 
the  inland  valley  within  reach  of  the  Sierras.  It  has  been  nothing 
unusual  for  ranchmen  to  haul  cedar  posts  on  wagons  forty  or  fifty  miles. 

The  manufacture  of  posts  from  incense  cedar  has  entailed  an  enor- 
mous waste  of  timber.  The  thick  sapwood  is  not  wanted,  and  in  the 
process  of  converting  a  trunk  into  posts,  the  woodsman  first  splits  off  the 
sap  and  throws  it  away.  In  trunks  of  small  and  medium  size,  the  sap- 
wood  may  amount  to  more  than  the  heartwood,  and  is  a  total  loss. 

The  tree's  bark  is  thick  and  stringy,  and  it  is  generally  wasted;  but 
in  some  instances  it  is  used  as  a  siuiace  dressing  for  mountain  roads.  It 
wears  to  pieces  and  becomes  a  pulpy  mass,  and  it  protects  the  surface  of 
the  road  from  excessive  wear,  and  from  washing  in  time  of  heavy  rain. 

Approximately  one-half  of  the  incense  cedar  trees,  as  they  stand  in 
the  woods,  are  defective.  A  fungus  {Dcedalia  vorax)  attacks  them  in  the 
heartwood  and  excavates  pits  throughout  the  length  of  the  trunks.  The 
galleries  resemble  the  work  of  ants,  and  as  ants  often  take  possession  of 
them  and  probably  enlarge  them,  it  is  quite  generally  believed  that  the 
pits  are  due  to  ants.  The  excavations  are  frequently  filled  with  dry, 
brown  dust,  sometimes  packed  very  hard  and  tight.  The  cedar  thus 
affected  resembles  "pecky  cypress,"  and  it  is  believed  that  the  same 
species  of  fungus,  or  a  closely  related  species,  is  responsible  for  the 
injury  to  both  cypress  in  the  South  and  incense  cedar  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  is  not  generally  regarded  by  users  of  cedar  posts  that  the 
honey-combed  condition  of  the  wood  lessens  the  service  which  the  post 


American  Forest  Trees  111 

will  give,  unless  by  weakening  it  and  causing  it  to  break,  or  by  rendering 
it  less  able  to  hold  the  staples  of  wire  fences,  or  nails  of  plank  and  picket 
fences. 

Post  makers  often  prefer  fire-killed  timber.  If  a  tree  is  found 
with  the  sapwood  consumed,  as  is  not  unusual,  it  is  nearly  always  free 
from  fungous  attack.  The  reason  it  stands  through  the  fire  which  bums 
the  sapwood  off,  is  that  the  heart  is  sound — if  it  were  not  sound,  the 
whole  tree  would  be  consumed. 

The  wood  of  the  incense  cedar  is  serviceable  for  many  piuposes. 
The  rejection  of  the  sapwood  by  so  many  users  is  the  most  discoiu-aging 
feature.  The  heart,  when  free  from  fungus,  is  a  fine,  attractive  material 
that  does  not  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  other  cedars,  though  it  may 
not  equal  some  of  them  for  particular  purposes.  Tests  show  it  fit  for 
lead  pencils,  and  recent  pxu-chases  of  large  quantities  have  been  made  by 
pencil  makers.  Clothes  chests  and  wardrobes  are  manufactured  from 
this  wood  on  the  assumption  that  the  odor  will  keep  moths  out  of  fm-s 
and  other  clothing  stored  within.  It  has  been  used  for  cigar  boxes,  but 
has  not  in  all  instances  proven  satisfactory.  The  odor  of  the  wood  is 
objected  to  by  some  smokers.  Another  objection  and  a  somewhat 
peculiar  one,  has  been  filed  against  incense  cedar  as  a  cigar  box  material. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  boxes  are  attacked  voraciously  by  rats  which  gnaw 
the  wood,  to  which  they  are  doubtless  attracted  by  the  odor. 

Sawmills  ttun  out  incense  cedar  lumber  which  is  worked  into 
frames  for  doors  and  windows,  and  doors  are  made  of  it,  and  also  interior 
finish.  Shipments  of  inch  boards  are  sold  in  New  York  and  Boston,  and 
exports  go  to  London,  Paris,  and  Berlin. 

The  long  period  during  which  incense  cedar  has  been  used  and 
wasted,  has  reduced  the  supply  in  most  regions,  but  there  is  yet  much  in 
the  forest.  It  is  never  lumbered  separately,  but  only  in  connection 
with  pine  and  fir ;  but  post  makers  have  always  gone  about  picking  trees 
of  this  species  and  passing  by  the  associated  species. 

Alligator  Juniper  (Juniperus  pachyphlcea)  is  so  named  from  its 
bark  which  is  patterned  like  the  skin  of  an  alligator.  It  is  called  oak- 
barked  cedar  in  Arizona,  moimtain  cedar  in  Texas,  and  checkered- 
barked  juniper  in  other  places.  Its  range  lies  in  southwestern  Texas, 
about  Eagle  pass  and  Limpia  mountains,  and  westward  on  the  desert 
ranges  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  south  of  the  Colorado  plateau,  and 
among  the  mountains  of  northern  Arizona.  Its  range  extends  south- 
ward into  Mexico.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  junipers,  but  only  when 
circumstances  are  wholly  favorable.  It  is  then  sixty  feet  high,  and  four 
or  five  feet  in  diametei ;  but  it  is  generally  small  and  of  poor  form  for 
lumber,  because  of  its  habit  of  separating  into  forkes  near  the  ground. 


112  American  Forest  Trees 

It  does  best  at  elevations  of  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet  in  bottoms  of  can- 
yons and  ravines.  The  grayish  green  color  of  the  foliage  is  due  to  the 
conspicuous  white  glands  which  dot  the  center  of  each  leaf.  The  berries 
are  small  and  blue,  of  sweetish  taste  which  does  not  particularly  appeal 
to  the  palate  of  civilized  man,  but  the  Indians  of  the  region,  whose 
normal  state  is  one  of  semi-starvation,  eat  them  with  relish.  The  line 
separating  heartwood  from  sap  in  alligator  juniper  is  frequently  irregular 
and  vague,  and  like  some  of  its  kindred  junipers  of  the  West,  patches  of 
sap  are  sometimes  buried  deep  in  the  heartwood,  while  streaks  of  heart- 
wood  occur  in  the  sap.  This  heartwood  is  usually  of  a  dirty  color,  sug- 
gesting red  rocks  and  soil  of  the  desert  where  it  grows.  Small  articles 
which  can  be  made  of  wood  selected  for  its  color  are  attractive.  They 
may  be  highly  polished,  and  the  surface  takes  a  satiny  finish;  but  the 
wood  does  not  show  very  well  in  panel  or  body  work  where  wide  pieces 
are  used.  The  best  utilization  of  alligator  juniper  appears  to  lie  in  small 
articles.  It  is  fine  for  the  lathe,  and  goblets,  napkin  rings,  match  safes, 
and  handkerchief  boxes  are  manufactured  from  the  wood  in  Texas.  Its 
rough  uses  are  as  fence  posts  and  telephone  poles.  It  is  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil. 

California  Juniper  (Junipertis  californica)  is  called  white  cedar, 
juniper,  sweet-fruited  juniper,  and  sweet-berried  cedar.  Its  range  is  in 
California  south  of  Sacramento,  among  the  ranges  of  the  coast  moun- 
tains, and  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  Its  height  runs  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet,  diameter  one  to  two.  The  leaves  fall  in  the  second 
or  third  year.  This  tree  is  of  poor  form  and  size  for  lumber.  Trunks 
frequently  divide  into  branches  near  the  ground.  The  wood  resembles 
that  of  other  western  junipers,  and  usually  the  fine  color  which  distin- 
guishes the  red  cedar  of  the  East  is  wanting,  and  in  its  stead  is  a  dull 
brown,  tinged  with  red.  The  wood  is  soft  and  durable,  and  is  strongly 
odorous.  The  sapwood  is  thin  and  is  nearly  white.  Fuel  and  fence 
posts  are  the  most  important  uses  of  the  California  juniper.  Indians  eat 
the  berries  raw  or  dry  them  and  pound  them  to  flour. 


WESTERN  RED  CEDAR 


h 

1 4  \  .r:^m\ 

4i 

^    * 

.^^^^^^^^^'^^^---^^^^^ 

Western-  Red  Cedar 

WESTERN  RED  CEDAR 

(Thuja  Plicata) 

IN  the  eastern  markets  the  lumber  from  this  tree  is  usually  called 
western  cedar  without  further  description,  but  that  name  does  not 
always  sufficiently  identify  it.  There  are  other  western  cedars,  notably 
incense  and  yellow;  but  they  have  not  generally  appeared  in  eastern 
markets.  Western  red  cedar  is  the  name  given  it  when  the  purpose  is  to 
separate  it  from  other  western  cedars.  It  is  the  only  red  cedar  in  the  far 
West,  except  the  scarce  junipers  which  are  totally  unknown  as  its  com- 
petitors in  lumber  centers.  Gigantic  cedar  is  a  name  which  takes  size 
into  account.  It  is  the  largest  of  American  cedars.  Trunks  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter  and  200  feet  high  are  sometimes  seen,  but  the  usual  size 
is  100  high,  from  two  to  four  in  diameter.  Canoe  cedar  is  a  name  bestowed 
upon  this  western  tree  for  the  same  reason  that  canoe  wood"  is  one  of  the 
yellow  poplar's  names  in  the  East.  It  is  one  of  the  best  woods  for 
dugout  canoes.  Botanists  have  called  the  tree  giant  arborvitse,  but 
the  name  never  got  beyond  books.  When  the  people  of  Washington  and 
Oregon  speak  of  cedar  without  a  qualifying  term,  they  mean  this  species. 
It  is  widely  known  as  shingle  wood  or  shingle  cedar,  because  more 
shingles  are  made  of  it  than  of  all  other  kinds  of  timber  in  the  United 
States  combined. 

The  western  red  cedar's  range  covers  300,000  square  miles,  not 
counting  regions  of  small  or  scattered  growth.  For  a  timber  tree,  that 
range  is  large,  but  not  nearly  as  large  as  some  others.  It  exceeds  one- 
hundred  fold  the  commercial  range  of  redwood,  and  probably  a  thousand 
fold  that  of  Port  Orford  cedar,  but  its  range  is  not  one-third  that  of  the 
eastern  red  cedar,  though  in  total  quantity  of  available  lumber  it  sur- 
passes the  eastern  tree  a  hundred  fold.  Its  range  begins  in  Alaska  on  the 
north,  and  follows  the  coast  to  northern  California,  and  extends  eastward 
into  Idaho.  The  best  development  occurs  in  the  regions  of  warm,  moist 
Pacific  winds,  but  not  in  the  immediate  fog  belts.  The  largest  quantity 
of  this  wood,  and  probably  the  largest  trees  also,  are  in  Washington. 
Abundant  rainfall  is  essential  to  western  red  cedar's  development.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  approximate  the  amount  of  the  remaining  stand. 
This  cedar  does  not  form  pure  forests,  and  estimates  of  so  many  feet  per 
acre  or  square  mile  cannot  be  based  on  fairly  exact  information  as  may  be 
done  with  redwood,  and  some  of  the  southern  pines.  Though  the  drain 
upon  the  cedar  forests  is  heavy,  it  is  generally  believed  there  is  enough  of 
this  species  to  meet  demands  for  a  long  period  of  years. 

Nature  made  ample  provision  for  the  spread  and  perpetuation  of 


116  American  Forest  Trees 

this  tree.  The  seeds  are  fairly  abundant,  are  light,  have  good  wing 
power,  and  are  great  travelers  in  search  of  suitable  places  to  germinate 
and  take  root.  The  tree's  greatest  enemy  is  fire.  The  cedar's  bark  is 
thin,  even  when  trunks  are  mature,  and  a  moderate  blaze  often  proves 
fatal  to  large  trees;  but  small  ones,  with  all  their  branches  close  to  the 
ground,  have  no  chance  when  the  fire  bums  the  litter  among  them. 
Some  tree  seeds  germinate  readily  on  soil  bared  by  fire — such  as  lodge- 
pole  pine,  wild  red  cherry,  and  paper  birch — but  the  western  red  cedar's 
do  not,  if  the  humus  is  sufficiently  burned  to  lessen  the  soil's  capacity  to 
retain  moistm-e.  For  that  reason,  this  cedar  seldom  follows  fire,  and  the 
result  is  that  it  constantly  loses  ground.  Under  normal  conditions,  it  is 
not  exacting  in  its  requirements;  but  anything  that  disturbs  natural 
conditions  is  more  likely  to  harm  than  help  this  cedar.  In  that  respect  it 
is  like  beech  .and  hemlock,  which  suffer  when  forest  conditions  are  dis- 
tm-bed. 

Trunks  are  large  but  not  shapely.  They  are  generally  fluted,  and 
greatly  swelled  at  the  base.  These  deformities  develop  rather  late  in  the 
tree's  life;  at  least,  they  are  not  prominent  in  young  timber.  Western 
cedar  poles  of  large  size  are  beautiful  in  outline;  but  when  maturity 
approaches,  the  trunk  grows  faster  near  the  ground  than  some  distance 
above;  the  annual  rings  are  wider  near  the  base  than  twenty  feet  above, 
resulting  in  great  enlargement  near  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  ribs 
and  creases  slowly  develop,  and  by  the  time  the  tree  is  old,  it  is  as  un- 
gainly as  one  of  the  giant  sequoias.  Its  appearance  is  hurt  by  character- 
istics other  than  the  swelled  base  and  the  buttresses.  While  the  tree  is 
small,  the  limbs  ascend,  and  maintain  a  graceful  upright  position. 
Toward  middle  life  they  begin  to  droop,  and  the  limbs  of  old  trees  hang 
down  the  trunks — the  reverse  of  their  attitude  in  early  life. 

The  western  red  cedar  lives  to  an  old  age,  from  600  to  1,000  years. 
The  oldest  are  liable  to  be  hollow  near  the  ground.  The  tree  is  remark- 
able for  what  happens  after  it  falls.  Often  the  trunk  crashes  down  in  a 
bed  of  moss,  which  in  a  few  years  buries  it  from  sight.  The  moss  holds 
so  much  water  that  the  buried  log  is  constantly  too  wet  for  fungous  attack. 
Consequently  decay  does  not  take  place.  Fallen  trees  have  lain  for 
hundreds  of  years — as  much  as  800  having  been  claimed  in  one  instance — 
and  at  the  end  of  that  time  they  are  sound  enough  for  shingles.  The 
position  of  living  trees  growing  upon  buried  logs  furnishes  the  key  to  the 
length  of  time  since  the  trunks  fell.  The  long  period  during  which  the 
moss-buried  wood  has  remained  sound  has  led  to  the  claim  that  western 
red  cedar  is  the  most  endiu-ing  wood  in  America.  Such  is  not  necessarily 
the  case.  A  good  many  others  would  probably  last  as  long  if  protected 
in  the  same  way. 


American  Forest  Trees  117 

Western  red  cedar  is  strong  and  stiff  but  falls  from  twenty  to 
thirty  per  cent  below  white  oak  in  these  factors.  It  is  light,  and  the 
texture  of  the  wood  is  rather  coarse.  The  springwood  and  summerwood 
are  distinct,  the  latter  constituting  one-half  or  less  of  the  annual  ring. 
The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  obscure.  The  wood's  color  is  dull 
brown,  tinged  with  red.     The  thin  sapwood  is  nearly  white. 

The  ease  with  which  western  red  cedar  may  be  worked  led  the 
Indians  to  use  it  in  their  most  ambitious  woodcraft.  The  gigantic 
totem  poles  which  have  excited  the  curiosity  and  admiration  of  travelers 
near  the  coast  in  Alaska  and  southward  have  nearly  all  been  of  this 
wood.  Some  of  them  are  the  largest  single  pieces  of  wood  carving  in  the 
world.  Trunks  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  and  forty  or  fifty  feet 
long  have  been  hewed  and  whittled  in  weird,  uncouth,  and  fantastic 
forms,  decorated  with  eagle  heads,  bear  mouths,  and  with  various 
creatures  of  the  forest  or  sea,  or  from  the  realms  of  imagination.  Before 
the  northern  Pacific  coast  Indians  procm-ed  tools  from  white  men  they 
executed  their  carving  by  means  of  bone,  stone,  shell,  and  wooden  tools, 
assisted  by  fire. 

The  making  of  canoes  was  in  some  ways  a  work  more  laborious 
for  the  Indians  than  the  manufacture  of  totem  poles.  Their  canoes  were 
dugouts  of  all  sizes,  from  the  small  trough  which  carried  one  or  two 
persons,  to  the  enormous  canoe  which  carried  fifty  warriors  with  all  their 
equipment.  Such  a  canoe,  now  in  the  National  Museum  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  is  fifty-nine  feet  long,  seven  feet,  three  inches  deep  at  the  bow, 
five  feet  three  inches  at  the  stern,  and  three  feet  seven  inches  in  the 
middle,  and  eight  feet  wide.  It  was  made  on  Vancouver  island,  and  is 
capable  of  carrying  100  persons.  The  capacity  of  the  canoe  is  thirty-five 
tons.  Civilized  man  has  produced  no  vessel  with  lines  more  perfect  than 
are  seen  in  some  of  these  canoes  made  by  savages;  but  all  the  canoes 
are  not  alike :  some  are  crude  and  clumsy.  It  is  claimed  that  large  cedar 
canoes  of  Indian  manufacture  were  early  carried  from  the  Pacific  coast 
by  fiu-  traders,  and  New  York  and  Boston  shipbuilders  took  them  as 
models  in  constructing  the  celebrated  clipper  ships  which  formerly 
sailed  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 

The  Indians  formerly  made  much  use  of  western  red  cedar  bark 
which  they  twisted  into  ropes  and  cords,  braided  for  mats,  wove  for 
cloth,  used  in  making  baskets,  roofing  wigwams,  constructing  fish  nets 
and  bird  snares,  ladders  for  climbing  cliS^s,  and  they  even  pulped  the 
inner  bark  by  pounding  it  in  mortars,  and  mixed  it  with  their  food. 

White  men  have  put  western  red  cedar  to  many  uses,  as  shingles, 
lumber,  cooperage,  poles,  posts,  piles,  car  siding  and  roofing,  boat 
building  from  skiffs  to  ships,  and  general  fm-niture  and  interior  finish. 


118  American  Forest  Trees 

Western  Juniper  (Juniperus  occidentalis)  is  a  high  mountain  tree 
with  all  the  characteristics  belonging  to  that  class  of  timber.  The 
trunks  are  short  and  strong,  the  limbs  wide-spreading,  the  wood  of  slow 
growth,  and  dense.  The  tree  attains  a  diameter  of  ten  inches  in  about 
130  years.  Trunks  ten  feet  in  diameter  have  been  reported,  but  trees 
that  large  would  be  hard  to  find  now.  John  Muir  said  that  the  western 
juniper  lives  2,000  years,  and  that  the  tree  is  never  uprooted  by  wind. 
The  trunk  is  usually  short,  six  or  eight  feet  being  a  fair  average,  and  very 
knotty.  However,  when  a  block  of  clear  wood  is  found,  it  is  high  class, 
the  heaviest  of  the  cedars,  straight  grain,  soft,  compact,  brittle.  The 
summerwood  is  so  narrow  that  it  resembles  a  fine,  black  line.  The 
medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  very  obscure.  The  wood  is  slightly 
aromatic,  splits  easily,  works  nicely,  and  in  color  is  brown,  tinged  with 
red.  In  appearance,  the  sapwood  suggests  spruce.  The  average  height 
of  the  trees  is  from  twenty-five  to  forty-five  feet,  diameter  two  to  foxir 
feet.  The  range  of  this  tree  is  in  Idaho,  eastern  Oregon,  and  through  the 
Cascades  and  Sierras  to  southern  California.  It  seldom  occurs  below 
an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  and  ascends  to  10,000  or  more.  On  the  highest 
summits  it  is  deformed  and  stunted.  Its  fruit  is  eaten  by  Indians,  and 
it  furnishes  fuel  for  mountain  camps  and  ranches,  timber  for  mines,  and 
sometimes  a  little  liunber.  The  crooked  limbs  and  trunks  are  made  into 
corral  fences  where  better  material  cannot  be  had.  The  wood  has  been 
found  suitable  for  lead  pencils,  but  that  of  proper  quality  is  too  scarce 
to  attract  manufacturers.  Other  names  for  this  tree  are  juniper,  cedar, 
yellow  cedar,  western  cedar,  western  red  cedar,  and  western  juniper. 
Some  of  these  names  are  applied  to  other  species  of  the  same  region. 


PORT  ORFORD  CEDAR 


PORT  ORFORD  CEDAR 

(Chamcecyparis  Lawsoniana) 

PORT  Orford  cedar  of  the  northwestern  coast  is  an  interesting 
member  of  the  cedar  group  with  a  very  limited  range.  Specimens 
are  found  throughout  an  area  of  about  10,000  square  miles,  but  the  dis- 
trict moderately  heavily  timbered  does  not  exceed  300  or  400  miles  in 
area.  It  lies  near  Coos  bay  in  southwestern  Oregon.  The  tree  is  found 
as  far  south  in  California  as  the  mouth  of  Klamath  river,  and  it  was  once 
reported  on  Mt.  Shasta,  but  it  is  very  scarce  there  if  it  exists  at  all. 
In  the  best  of  its  range  Port  Orford  cedar  runs  20,000  feet  to  the  acre, 
and  a  single  acre  has  yielded  100,000  feet.  Trees  run  from  135  to  175 
feet  in  height  and  three  to  seven  in  diameter.  The  largest  on  record 
were  about  200  feet  high  and  twelve  in  diameter.  Few  trees  of  any  species 
have  smaller  leaves.  They  often  are  only  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  They  die  the  third  year  and  change  to  a  bright  brown.  The 
cones  are  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Two  or  four  seeds  lie 
imder  each  fertile  cone  scale,  and  ripen  in  September  and  October.  The 
seeds  are  one-eighth  inch  in  length,  and  are  winged  for  flight.  The  bark 
of  the  tree  is  much  thicker  than  of  most  cedars,  being  ten  inches  near  the 
base  of  large  trees.  This  ought  to  protect  the  trunks  against  fire  but  it 
falls  short  of  expectations.  About  sixty  years  ago  much  of  the  finest 
timber  was  killed  by  a  great  fire  which  swept  the  region.  Some  of  the 
dead  tnmks  stood  forty  years  without  exhibiting  much  evidence  of 
decay,  and  those  that  fell  remained  sound  many  years. 

The  whole  history  of  this  interesting  tree,  from  its  first  announced 
discovery  by  white  men  until  the  present  time,  is  embraced  in  the 
memory  of  living  men.  It  had  not  been  heard  of  prior  to  1855.  Though 
fire  and  storm  have  destroyed  large  quantities,  it  has  been  estimated  that 
4,000,000,000  feet  of  merchantable  timber  remain,  an  average  of  15,000 
feet  per  acre  for  an  area  of  400  square  miles.  The  wood  is  moderately 
light,  is  nearly  as  strong  as  white  oak,  and  falls  only  sixteen  per  cent 
below  it  in  stiffness.  The  annual  rings  are  generally  narrow,  but  distinct. 
The  summerwood  is  narrow,  but  dark  in  color  in  the  heartwood.  The 
medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  obscure.  The  wood  abounds  in 
odorous  resin.  The  odor  persists  long  after  the  wood  has  ceased  to  be 
fresh.  Workmen  in  mills  where  this  cedar  is  cut,  and  on  board  of  vessels 
freighted  with  it,  are  sometimes  seriously  affected  by  the  odor.  It  is 
reputed  to  repel  insects,  and  is  made  into  clothes  chests,  wardrobes,  and 
shelves,  with  the  expectation  that  moths  will  be  kept  at  a  distance. 
Several  other  cedars  bear  similar  reputations. 


122  American  Forest  Trees 

One  of  the  first  uses  to  which  the  people  of  the  Pacific  coast  put 
Port  Orford  cedar  was  boat  building.  The  industry  was  important  at 
Coos  bay  at  an  early  day,  and  vessels  constructed  there  sailed  the  seas 
thirty  or  forty  years.  Trunks  of  this  cedar  tiu-n  out  a  high  percentage  of 
clear  lumber.  The  wood  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  manufactured  into 
furnitiu-e,  doors,  sash,  turnery,  and  matches.  The  latter  article  is 
esteemed  by  many  persons  for  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  burning  wood.  It 
has  been  found  practicable  to  finish  this  cedar  in  imitation  of  mahogany, 
oak,  and  several  other  cabinet  woods.  In  its  natural  state  it  sometimes 
bears  some  resemblance  to  yellow  pine,  and  sometimes  to  spruce,  there 
being  considerable  variation  in  the  appearance  of  wood  from  different 
trees.  When  the  visible  supply  of  Port  Orford  cedar  has  been  cut,  the 
end  will  be  reached,  for  not  much  young  growth  is  coming  on.  Sixty- 
eight  varieties  of  Port  Orford  cedar  are  recognized  in  cultivation. 

Yellow  Cedar  (Chamacyparis  nootkatensis)  describes  this  tree 
quite  well.  The  small  twigs  are  of  that  color,  and  so  is  the  heartwood. 
Many  give  it  the  name  yellow  cypress.  Others  know  it  as  Alaska  cy- 
press, Alaska  ground  cypress,  Nootka  cypress,  or  Nootka  sound  cypress. 
The  name  of  the  species,  nootkatensis,  was  given  it  by  Archibald 
Menzies,  a  Scotch  botanist  who  discovered  it  on  the  shore  of  Nootka 
sound  in  Alaska. 

Yellow  cedar's  geographic  range  extends  from  southeastern  Alaska 
to  Oregon,  a  distance  of  1,000  miles.  It  does  not  usually  go  far  inland, 
and  consequently  the  range  is  narrow  in  most  places.  North  of  the 
international  boundary  the  tree  seldom  reaches  an  altitude  of  more  than 
2,000  or  3,000  feet,  but  in  Washington  and  Oregon  it  is  occasionally  met 
with  at  elevations  of  4,000  and  5,000  feet.  The  species  reaches  its  best 
development  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  southern  Alaska  and  British 
Columbia,  where  the  air  is  moist,  the  winds  warm  in  winter,  the  rainfall 
abundant,  and  the  snowfall  often  deep.  Well  developed  trees  under  such 
circumstances  are  from  ninety  to  120  feet  high,  from  two  to  six  in 
diameter.  The  blue-green  leaves  remain  active  two  years,  and  then 
die,  but  they  do  not  usually  fall  until  a  year  later.  The  presence  of 
the  dead  leaves  on  the  twigs  tones  down  the  general  color  of  the  tree 
crowns. 

The  cones  are  about  half  an  inch  long  and  have  four,  five,  or  six 
scales.  From  two  to  four  seeds  lie  beneath  each  scale  until  September 
or  October  when  they  ripen  and  escape.  Their  wings  are  large  enough  to 
carry  them  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  parent  tree,  and 
reproduction  under  natural  conditions  is  generally  good.  Yellow  cedar 
is  abundant  within  its  range,  but  nature  has  circumscribed  its  range, 
and  it  shows  no  disposition  to  pass  the  boundary  line. 


American  Forest  Trees  123 

The  bark  is  thin  and  exhibits  cedar's  characteristic  stringiness.  It 
is  shed  in  thin  strips. 

The  wood  is  moderately  light,  and  is  strong  and  stiff.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  hardest  of  the  cedars,  and  the  grain  is  so  regular  that  high  polish 
is  possible.  Under  favorable  circumstances  trees  grow  with  fair  rapidity, 
but  when  conditions  are  unfavorable,  as  on  high  mountains  where 
summers  are  short  and  winters  severe,  growth  is  remarkably  slow,  and 
twenty  years  or  more  may  be  required  for  one  inch  increase  in  tnmk 
diameter.     The  wood  of  such  trees  is  hard,  dense,  and  strong. 

The  grain  of  yellow  cedar  is  usually  straight.  The  bands  of  sum- 
merwood  are  narrow,  the  annual  rings  are  indistinct,  and  an  attempt  to 
count  them  is  often  attended  with  considerable  difficulty.  The  wood  is 
easily  worked,  satiny,  susceptible  of  a  beautiful  polish,  and  possesses  an 
agreeable  resinous  odor.  The  heartwood  is  bright,  clear  yellow,  and  the 
thin  sapwood  is  a  little  lighter  in  color.  In  common  with  all  other 
cedars,  yellow  cedar  resists  decay  many  years.  Logs  which  have  lain  in 
damp  woods  half  a  century  remain  sound  inside  the  sapwood.  Some- 
times fallen  timber  in  that  region  is  quickly  buried  under  deep  beds  of 
moss  which  preserves  it  from  decay  much  longer  than  if  the  logs  lie 
exposed  to  alternate  dampness  and  dryness. 

Statistics  of  sawmill  operations  in  the  Northwest  do  not  distinguish 
betweten  the  different  cedars,  and  the  cut  of  yellow  cedar  is  unknown. 
It  is  considerable,  but  of  course  not  to  be  compared  with  the  more 
abundant  western  red  cedar.  Statistics  of  uses  are  as  meager  as  of  the 
lumber  output.  In  Washington  the  factories  which  use  wood  as  raw 
material  report  only  7,500  feet  of  yellow  cedar  a  year.  Doubtless  much 
more  than  that  is  used,  but  under  other  names.  There  is  no  occasion  to 
disguise  this  wood  under  other  names.  It  has  a  striking  individuality 
and  deserves  a  place  of  its  own.  In  some  respects  it  is  one  of  the  best 
woods  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  In  nearly  every  situation  where  it  has 
been  tried,  it  has  been  found  satisfactory.  Its  rich  yellow  presents  a 
fine  appearance  in  fiu-niture  and  interior  finish,  and  the  polish  which  it 
takes  surpasses  that  possible  with  any  other  cedar,  with  the  probable 
exception  of  some  of  the  scarce,  high  mountain  junipers.  It  has  been 
used  for  pyrography  and  patterns,  two  hard  places  to  fill,  and  for  which 
few  woods  are  suitable.  Indians  long  ago  in  Alaska  learned  that  it  was 
the  best  material  for  boat  paddles  which  their  forests  afforded.  It 
possesses  the  requisite  stiffness  and  strength,  and  it  wears  to  a  smooth- 
ness almost  like  ebony.  Boat  factories  have  many  uses  for  the  wood, 
decking,  railing,  and  interior  finish  being  among  the  most  important.  It 
is  said  to  be  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  Spanish  cedar  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cigar  boxes,  but  its  use  for  that  purpose  is  not  yet  large. 


124  American  Forest  Trees 

It  is  said  that  occasional  exports  of  this  wood  go  to  China  where  it  is 
finished  in  imitation  of  scarce  and  expensive  woods  of  that  country. 

Yellow  cedar  is  a  wood  with  a  future.  Its  splendid  properties 
cannot  fail  to  give  it  a  place  of  no  small  importance  in  factories  and  in 
general  building  operations.  The  supply  has  scarcely  yet  been  touched, 
but  it  cannot  much  longer  remain  an  undeveloped  asset.  It  is  apparent- 
ly a  high-class  cooperage  material,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used 
much  if  at  all  in  that  industry.  The  same  might  be  said  of  it  for  doors. 
It  is  heavier  than  spruce,  white  pine,  and  redwood,  but  where  weight  is 
not  a  matter  for  objection,  it  ought  to  equal  them  in  all  desirable 
qualities. 

In  much  of  its  range  it  is  generally  exempt  from  forest  fire  injury-, 
because  its  native  woods  are  nearly  always  too  wet  to  bum. 

Rocky  Mountain  Juniper  (Junipcrus  scopulorum)  is  scattered  over  the 
mountains  from  Dakota  and  Nebraska  to  Washington  and  British  Columbia,  and 
southward  to  western  Texas,  New  Me.xico,  and  Arizona.  E.xcept  near  the  Pacific 
coast,  it  is  usually  found  at  altitudes  above  5,000  feet.  It  clings  closely  to  dry,  rocky 
ridges  where  it  attains  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  three  feet  or 
less.  The  trunk  usually  divides  near  the  ground  into  several  stems.  The  bright  blue 
berries  ripen  the  second  year.  The  wood  resembles  that  of  red  cedar,  and  is  used  in 
the  same  way,  as  far  as  it  is  used  at  all.  It  is  not  a  source  of  lumber.  A  little  is 
sawed  occasionally  on  mountain  mills,  and  the  lumber  is  used  locally  in  house  build- 
ing, particularly  for  window  and  door  frames;  but  sawlogs  are  short,  and  because  of 
their  poor  form,  the  output  of  lumber  is  negligible.  Some  of  it  finds  its  wayintoTe.\as 
where  it  is  manufactured  into  clothes  chests  and  wardrobes,  and  these  are  sold  as  red 
cedar.  A  choice  mountain  juniper  log,  with  large,  sound  heartwood,  produces  lumber 
with  a  delicate  grain  and  is  more  attractive  than  red  cedar  when  made  into  chests  and 
boxes.  By  habit  of  growth,  it  includes  patches  of  white  sapwood  in  the  darker  heart- 
wood.  When  these  are  sawed  through  in  converting  the  logs  into  boards,  the  islands 
of  white  wood  scattered  over  the  surface  produce  a  unique  effect  not  wanting  in 
artistic  value.  Some  of  the  other  western  junipers  possess  similar  characteristics. 
Sometimes  patches  of  bark  are  also  found  imbedded  in  the  interoir  of  the  trees. 


RED  SPRUCE 


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Red  Spruce 

RED  SPRUCE 

(Picea  Rubens) 

IN  New  York  the  tree  is  called  yellow  spruce,  while  in  foreign  literature 
it  is  known  as  North  American  red  spruce.  The  tree  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  black  spruce  (Picea  nigra),  the  main  points 
of  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  two  trees  being  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  cones  and  of  the  staminate  blossoms.  The  cones  of  red  spruce  are 
larger  than  those  of  black,  and  they  mature  and  drop  from  the  branches 
during  their  first  winter,  while  those  of  the  latter  named  species  frequent- 
ly remain  on  the  trees  for  several  seasons.  Certain  eminent  botanists 
incline  to  the  belief  that  the  two  are  different  varieties  of  one  species, 
inasmuch  as  even  the  timber  of  red  spruce  bears  a  close  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  black  spruce.  Other  botanists  dispute  this  theory,  saying 
that  the  trees  are  entirely  different  in  appearance ;  that  the  red  spruce  is 
a  light  olive-green,  while  blacK  spruce  is  inclined  to  a  darker  olive  with 
perhaps  a  purplish  tinge,  so  that  when  seen  together  they  have  no 
resemblance  in  point  of  color.  They  further  say  that  the  cones  are  not 
only  different  in  size  but  that  the  scales  are  quite  unlike  in  texture,  those 
of  black  spruce  being  much  thinner  and  more  brittle.  The  same  au- 
thorities maintain  that  the  tiny  twigs  of  red  spruce  are  more  conspicuous 
on  account  of  their  reddish  tinge. 

Generally  speaking  the  principal  spruce  growth  of  northern  New 
England  and  New  York  is  black  spruce,  although  interspersed  with  it  in 
some  localities  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  red  spruce.  On  the  contrary 
the  chief  stand  of  spruce  in  West  Virginia,  Virginia,  western  North 
Carolina,  and  eastern  Tennessee  and  the  other  high  altitudes  over  the 
South  Carolina  line,  is  largely  red  spruce.  This  botanical  analysis  of  the 
two  species  of  wood  is  based  entirely  on  the  authority  of  botanists,  but 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  average  lumberman  there  is  absolutely  no 
difference  between  red  and  black  spruce  and  none  in  the  physics  of  the 
two  woods  except  that  which  rises  from  varying  conditions  of  growth  as 
soil,  rainfall,  altitude  or  latitude,  or  general  environment.  The  larger 
spruce  of  West  Virginia  and  the  mountain  region  farther  south,  has 
certain  qualities  of  strength  and  texture,  combined  with  a  large  percent- 
age of  clear  lumber  that  is  not  approximated  by  the  spruce  of  New 
England  and  the  British  maritime  provinces.  In  shape  the  tree  is 
pyramidal,  with  spreading  branches.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from 
seventy  to  a  hundred  feet.  Its  bark  is  reddish  brown,  slightly  scaly. 
The  twigs  are  light  colored  when  young  and  are  covered  with  tiny  hairs. 
The  leaves  are  thickly  clustered  along  the  branches,  and  are  simple  and 

127 


128  American  Forest  Trees 

slender,  pointed  at  the  apex.  They  become  lustrous  at  maturity.  The 
stamina te  flowers  are  oval,  bright  red  in  color;  the  pistillate  ones  are 
oblong,  with  thin  rounded  scales.  The  fruit  of  the  red  spruce  is  a  cone, 
from  one  to  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length;  it  is  green  when  young, 
txirning  dark  with  age,  and  falling  from  the  brancheswhen  the  scales  open. 
The  seeds  are  dark  brown,  and  winged. 

Formerly  spruce  was  little  thought  of  for  lumber  and  manufactur- 
ing purposes  in  this  country,  though  some  use  was  made  of  it  from  the 
earliest  settlements  in  the  regions  where  it  grew.  White  pine  could 
generally  be  had  where  spruce  was  abundant,  and  the  former  wood  was 
preferred.  As  pine  became  scarce,  spruce  was  worked  in  for  a  number  of 
purposes.  The  tree's  form  is  all  that  a  sawmill  man  could  desire.  The 
trunk  has  more  knots  than  white  pine,  for  the  reason  that  limbs  are  a 
longer  time  in  dying  and  in  dropping  off;  but  knots  are  small  and 
generally  sound.  By  careful  culling,  a  moderate  amount  of  clear  lumber 
may  be  obtained.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  narrow-ringed,  strong  in 
proportion  to  its  weight,  elastic,  and  its  color  is  pale  with  a  slight  tinge  of 
red,  the  sapwood  whiter  and  usually  about  two  inches  thick.  The 
contrast  between  heart  and  sapwood  is  not  strong.  The  medullary 
rays  are  numerous,  but  small  and  obsciu-e.  The  summerwood  is  thin 
and  not  conspicuous.  It  is  the  wood's  red  tinge  which  gives  the  tree  its 
commercial  name. 

It  is  believed  that  the  yearly  cut  of  red  spruce  in  the  United  States 
for  lumber  is  about  500,000,000  feet,  one-half  of  which  comes  from 
West  Virginia  and  southward,  where  this  species  reaches  its  highest 
development;  and  the  pulpwood  cut  in  the  same  region  is  about  one- 
tenth  as  much  in  quantity.  The  long  fiber  and  white  color  of  spruce 
make  it  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  woods  for  pulp  in  this  country. 
Red  spruce  is  only  one  of  several  species  of  spruce  which  contribute  to  the 
supply.  The  total  output  of  spruce  pulpwood  in  the  United  States 
yearly  is  equivalent  to  about  1,000,000,000  feet  of  lumber. 

Red  spruce  lumber  has  a  long  list  of  uses.  Much  flooring  is  made  of 
it,  and  it  wears  well,  but  not  as  well  as  hard  pine  from  the  South.  It  is 
more  used  for  shipping  boxes  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  than  any  other  wood,  except  white  pine.  Its  good  stenciling 
qualities  recommend  it.  Manufacturers  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  find 
it  excellent  material,  combining  lightness,  strength,  and  small  tendency 
to  warp,  shrink,  or  swell.  Coopers  make  buckets,  tubs,  kegs,  and  churns 
of  it;  manufacturers  of  refrigerators  use  it  for  doors  and  frames;  and 
makers  of  fumitiu-e  use  it  for  many  interior  parts  of  bureaus,  tables,  and 
sideboards.  Textile  mills  use  spruce  clothboards  as  center  pieces  round 
which  to  wind  fabrics;  and  a  further  use  in  mills  is  for  bobbins.     It  has 


American  Forest  Trees  129 

many  places  in  boat  building,  notably  as  spars  and  yards;  and  for 
window  and  door  frames. 

The  makers  of  piano  frames  employ  red  spruce  for  certain  parts; 
but  as  material  for  musical  instruments  its  most  important  use  is  as 
sounding  boards.  All  the  commercial  spruces  are  so  used.  Wood  for 
this  purpose  must  be  free  from  defects  of  all  kinds,  and  of  straight  and 
even  grain.  The  sounding  board's  value  lies  in  its  ability  to  vibrate  in 
unison  with  the  strings  of  the  instrument.  Spruce  has  no  superior  for 
that  place. 

Red  spruce  bears  abundance  of  seeds,  the  best  on  the  highest 
branches.  The  seeds  are  winged,  and  the  wind  scatters  them.  They 
germinate  best  on  humus.  In  spruce  forests,  clumps  of  seedlings  are 
often  seen  where  logs  have  decayed  and  fallen  to  dust.  Seedlings  do  not 
thrive  on  mineral  soil,  and  for  that  reason  red  spruce  makes  a  poor 
showing  where  fires  have  burned.  It  does  not  spread  vigorously  in  old 
fields  as  white  pine  does.  It  must  have  forest  conditions  or  it  will  do 
little  good.  For  that  reason  it  does  not  promise  great  things  for  the 
future.  It  grows  very  slowly,  and  land  owners  prefer  white  pine,  where 
that  species  will  grow.  If  spruce  is  to  be  planted,  most  persons  prefer 
Norway  spruce  (Picea  excdsa)  of  Europe.  It  grows  faster  than  native 
spruces.     It  is  the  spruce  usually  seen  in  door  yards  and  parks. 

Black  Spruce  (Picca  mariana)  grows  much  farther  north  than  red  spruce,  but 
the  two  species  mingle  in  a  region  of  100,000  square  miles  or  more  northward  of 
Pennsylvania  and  in  New  England  and  southern  and  eastern  Canada.  Black  spruce 
grows  from  Labrador  to  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie  river,  almost  to  the  arctic  circle. 
It  is  found  as  far  south  as  the  Lake  States  where  it  constitutes  the  principal  spruce  of 
commerce.  In  some  of  the  swamps  of  northern  Minnesota  and  in  the  neighboring 
parts  of  Canada  it  is  little  more  than  a  shrub,  and  trees  three  or  four  feet  high  bear 
cones.  On  better  land  in  that  region  the  tree  is  large  enough  for  sawlogs.  It  passes 
under  several  names,  among  which  are  double  spruce,  blue  spruce,  white  spruce,  and 
water  spruce.  The  common  name  black  spruce  probably  refers  to  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  crown.  The  small  cones  (the  smallest  of  the  spruces)  adhere  to  the 
branches  many  years,  and  give  a  ragged,  black  appearance  to  the  tree  when  seen  from 
a  distance.  The  wood  is  as  white  as  other  spruces.  Trees  vary  greatly  in  size.  The 
best  are  100  feet  high  and  two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter;  but  the  average  size  is 
about  thirty  feet  high  and  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  That  size  is  not  attractive  to 
lumbermen;  but  cutters  of  pulpwood  find  it  valuable  and  convenient,  and  much  of  it 
is  manufactured  into  paper.  The  wood  weighs  2S.57  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is 
moderately  strong,  and  high  in  elasticity.  It  is  pale  yellow-white  with  thin  sapwood. 
In  Manitoba,  lumber  is  sawed  from  black  spruce,  and  it  is  cut  also  in  the  Lake  States, 
but  it  is  preferred  for  pulp.  It  gives  excellent  service  as  canoe  paddles.  Spruce 
chewing  gum  is  made  of  resinous  exudations  from  this  tree,  and  is  an  article  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Spruce  beer  is  another  by-product  which  has  long  been  manu- 
factured in  New  England  and  the  eastern  Canadian  provinces.  It  was  made  in  New- 
foundland three  hundred  years  ago  and  has  been  bought  and  sold  in  the  markets  of 
that  region  ever  since.     Fishing  vessels  carry  supplies  of  the  beverage  on  long  voyages 


130  American  Forest  Trees 

as  a  preventive  of  scurvy.  The  beer  is  made  by  boiling  leaves  and  twigs,  and  adding 
molasses  to  the  concoction  which  is  allowed  to  pass  through  mild  fermentation. 
Foresters  will  probably  never  pay  much  attention  to  black  spruce  because  other 
species  promise  more  profit.  It  is  little  planted  for  ornamental  purposes,  as  it  does 
not  grow  rapidly,  is  of  poor  form,  and  the  accumulation  of  dead  cones  on  the  branches 
gives  it  a  poor  appearance.     Besides,  planted  trees  do  not  live  long. 

WmTE  Spruce  (Picea  canadensis)  is  of  more  importance  in  Canada  than  in  the 
United  States,  because  more  abundant.  It  is  one  of  the  most  plentiful  timber  trees 
of  Alaska,  and  it  is  found  west  to  Bering  strait  and  north  of  the  arctic  circle.  It  is 
said  to  approach  within  twenty  miles  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  Its  eastern  limit  is  in 
Labrador,  its  southern  in  the  northern  tier  of  states  from  Maine  to  Idaho.  A  little 
of  this  species  is  cut  for  lumber  in  northern  New  England  and  in  upper  Michigan,  and 
westward,  just  south  of  the  Canadian  Une.  The  light  blue-green  foliage  gives  the 
tree  its  name.  It  is  known  by  other  names  as  well,  single  spruce,  bog  spruce,  skunk 
spruce,  cat  spruce,  double  spruce,  and  pine.  Some  of  its  names  are  due  to  the  odor 
of  its  foHage.  The  largest  trees  are  100  feet  high  and  three  in  diameter,  but  most  are 
smaller.  Having  a  range  so  extensive,  and  in  climates  and  situations  so  different, 
the  tree  naturally  varies  greatly  in  size  and  form.  The  wood  of  well-developed  trees 
is  white  and  handsome,  the  thin,  pencil-like  bands  of  summerwood  having  a  slightly 
darker  tone  than  the  springwood.  The  two  parts  of  the  annual  ring  possess  different 
degrees  of  hardness.  The  springwood  is  softer  than  the  summerwood.  The  medul- 
lary rays  are  numerous,  and  the  surface  of  quarter-sawed  lumber  has  a  silvery 
appearance,  due  to  the  exposed  fiat  surfaces  of  the  rays.  In  the  markets,  no  distinc- 
tion is  made  between  white  spruce  lumber,  and  that  cut  from  other  species.  The 
uses  of  the  different  species  are  much  the  same.  As  a  pulpwood,  white  spruce  is  in 
demand  wherever  it  is  available.  The  largest  output  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
northern  New  England.  The  tree  is  often  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  in  Eruope 
and  in  northern  states.  When  grown  in  the  open,  the  crown  is  pyramidal,  like  that 
of  balsam  fir.     It  does  not  thrive  where  summers  are  warm  and  dry. 


SITKA  SPRUCE 


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SITKA  SPRUCE 

{Picea  Sitchensis) 

THIS  is  largest  of  the  spruces.  In  height  and  in  girth  of  trunk  no 
other  approaches  it.  The  moist,  warm  climate  of  the  north  Pacific 
slope  is  its  favorite  home,  though  its  range  extends  far  northward  along 
the  islands  and  coast  of  Alaska.  Toward  the  extreme  limit  of  its  habitat 
it  loses  its  splendid  form  and  size  and  degenerates  into  a  sprawling  shrub. 
The  limit  of  the  species  southward  lies  in  Mendocino  county,  California. 
Its  range  in  a  north  and  south  direction  is  not  less  than  2,000  miles;  but 
east  and  west  the  growth  covers  a  mere  ribbon  facing  the  sea.  It  climbs 
some  of  the  British  Columbia  mountains,  5,000  feet,  but  it  prefers  the 
low,  wet  valleys  and  flatlands,  or  the  rainy  and  snowy  slopes  set  to 
catch  the  sea  winds.  There  it  is  at  its  best,  and  the  largest  trunks  are 
200  feet  high,  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  about  850  years  old.  All 
sizes  less  than  this  are  found.  It  is  not  easy  to  name  an  average  size 
when  variation  runs  from  giants  to  dwarfs;  but  in  regions  where  this 
spruce  is  cut  for  lumber,  the  average  height  of  mature  trees  is  about 
125  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  four  feet. 

Tideland  spruce  is  one  of  its  names.  That  has  reference  to  its 
habit  of  sticking  close  to  the  sea.  Its  other  names  are  Menzies'  spruce, 
great  tideland  spruce,  and  western  spruce.  The  last  may  be  considered 
its  trade  name  in  lumber  markets,  for  it  is  seldom  called  anything  else 
when  it  is  shipped  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  name  is  appro- 
priate, except  that  other  spruces  grow  in  the  West,  and  are  equally  en- 
titled to  the  name.  This  applies  particularly  to  Engelmann  spruce  of  the 
northern  Rocky  Mountain  region;  but  its  lumber  and  that  cut  from 
Sitka  spruce  are  not  liable  to  be  confused  in  the  mind  of  anyone  who  is 
acquainted  with  the  two  woods.  The  name  Sitka  refers  to  the  town  of 
that  name  in  Alaska. 

The  leaves  of  this  species  are  usually  less  than  one  inch  in  length, 
and  in  color  are  light  yellowish  green.  They  stand  out  like  bristles  on 
all  sides  of  the  twigs.  Cones  are  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  and  hang 
by  short  stems,  usually  at  the  ends  of  twigs.  They  ripen  the  first  year, 
release  their  seeds,  which  fly  away  on  small  but  ample  wings,  and  the 
cones  drop  during  the  fall  and  winter.  Sitka  spruce  bark  is  generally 
less  than  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  Trunks  which  grow  in  forests  prune 
themselves  well,  and  are  usually  clear  of  limbs  from  forty  to  eighty  feet. 
The  bases  of  trees  which  grow  on  wet  land  are  much  enlarged  like 
cypress  and  tupelo,  and  lumbermen  frequently  cut  above  the  swell, 
leaving  from  1,000  to  5,000  feet  or  more  of  lumber  in  the  stump.     Sitka 


134  American  Forest  Trees 

spruce's  characteristic  root  system  is  shallow;  but  on  mountain  sides 
where  soil  is  dry,  roots  penetrate  deep  in  search  of  moisture. 

The  wood  of  this  spruce  varies  greatly  in  color,  but  it  is  usually  a 
very  pale  brown,  with  the  faintest  tinge  of  red.  It  is  a  little  heavier  than 
white  pine,  considerably  weaker,  and  with  less  elasticity.  The  size  of 
the  trunks,  with  their  freedom  from  limbs,  insures  a  high  percentage  of 
clear  lumber  when  Sitka  spruce  is  manufactured.  The  tree  grows 
slowly,  the  annual  rings  are  narrow,  and  the  bands  of  surmner  growth 
are  comparatively  broad,  to  which  fact  the  rather  dark  color  of  the 
wood  of  the  spruce  is  due. 

Sitka  spruce  is  an  important  source  of  lumber.  The  total  cut  in 
Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  in  1910  was  about  255,000,000  feet. 
It  is  below  red  spruce  in  quantity  of  sawmill  cut,  but  above  all  other 
spruces  in  the  United  States.  The  people  of  the  Pacific  coast  use  much 
of  it  at  home,  but  large  quantities  are  shipped  to  markets  in  eastern 
states,  and  some  to  foreign  countries.  Nearly  4,000,000  feet  were 
bought  by  Illinois  manufacturers  in  1909,  in  addition  to  what  was  used 
rough  in  the  state.  The  commodities  manufactured  of  this  spruce  in 
Illinois  indicate  with  a  fair  degree  of  accm-acy  the  uses  made  of  the  wood 
in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
north  of  the  Ohio  river  and  the  Potomac.  Among  articles  so  manu- 
factured in  Illinois  are  playground  apparatus,  porch  and  stair  balus- 
ters, doors,  blinds,  sash  and  frames,  poultry  brooders,  sounding 
boards  for  pianos  and  other  musical  instruments,  parts  of  mandolins 
and  guitars,  pipes  for  organs,  cornice  brackets,  store  and  ofSce  fronts, 
decking  and  spars  for  boats,  wagon  beds  and  windmill  wheel  slats, 
refrigerators  and  cold  storage  rooms,  ironing  boards  and  other 
woodenware. 

Twenty  times  as  much  Sitka  spruce  is  made  into  finished  com- 
modities in  Washington  as  in  Illinois.  That  is  to  be  expected,  since 
Washington  is  the  home  of  the  tree  and  the  center  of  supply.  A  partial 
list  of  its  uses  in  that  state  will  show  that  the  wood  is  liked  at  home. 
Douglas  fir  was  the  only  wood  bought  in  larger  amounts  by  Washington 
manufactm-ers.  They  made  55,429,000  feet  of  it  into  boxes,  and 
coopers  employed  12,000,000  more.  The  next  largest  users  were 
pulpmills,  while  2,000,000  feet  went  into  sounding  boards,  many  of 
which  were  for  shipment  abroad.  Other  users  were  basket  makers,  and 
the  manufacturers  of  fiuniture,  fixtm-es,  finish,  caskets,  veneer,  trunks, 
pulleys,  vehicles,  boats,  and  patterns.  Sitka  spruce  decays  quickly 
when  exposed  to  rain  and  weather. 

Sitka  spruce  can  be  depended  upon  for  the  future.  Though  it 
grows  slowly  it  may  be  expected  to  keep  growing.     Its  range  lies  in 


American  Forest  Trees  135 

regions  generally  too  wet  for  woods  to  bum,  and  it  will  suffer  less 
from  forest  fires  than  trees  of  inland  regions.  It  is  an  abtuidant  seeder, 
and  its  favorite  seedbed  is  moss,  muck,  decayed  wood,  and  wet  ground 
litter  of  various  kinds.  For  the  first  few  years  seedlings  are  sensitive 
to  frost,  but  not  in  later  life. 

Sitka  spruce  is  often  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  western 
Europe,  and  occasionally  in  the  middle  Atlantic  states.  The  New 
England  climate  is  too  severe  for  it. 

Engelmann  Spruce  (Picea  engelmanni)  was  named  for  Dr, 
George  Engelmann.  It  has  other  names.  In  Utah  it  is  called  balsam, 
white  spruce  in  Oregon,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho,  mountain  spruce  in 
Montana,  Arizona  spruce  farther  south,  while  in  Idaho  it  is  sometimes 
known  as  white  pine.  That  name  is  misleading,  for  Idaho  has  a  species 
of  white  pine  (Pintis  monticola).  In  eastern  markets  the  wood  is  known 
as  western  spruce ;  but  that,  also,  is  indefinite,  for  Sitka  spruce  is  also  a 
western  species  and  is  found  in  the  same  markets  as  Engelmann 
spruce.  This  tree's  range  extends  from  Yukon  territory  to  Arizona, 
fully  3,000  miles.  It  is  a  mountain  species  and  is  found  in  elevated 
ranges.  In  the  southern  part  of  its  habitat  it  ascends  mountains  to 
heights  of  nearly  12,000  feet.  It  grows  in  the  Cascade  mountain  ranges 
in  Washington  and  Oregon.  The  specie^'  best  development  occm-s  in 
British  Columbia.  At  its  best,  trees  are  150  feet  high  and  four  or  five  in 
diameter;  but  every  size  less  than  that  occurs  in  different  parts  of  its 
range,  down  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet  for  fully  matured  trees. 
Such  are  found  on  lofty  and  sterile  mountains  where  frost  occurs  prac- 
tically every  night  in  summer,  and  winter  snows  bury  all  objects  for 
months  at  a  time.  Though  the  stunted  spruce  trees  may  be  only  two 
or  three  feet  high,  their  branches  spread  many  feet,  and  lie  flat  on  the 
rocks.  Though  such  situations  are  exceedingly  unfavorable  to  tree 
growth,  the  stunted  spruces  survive  sometimes  for  two  hundred  years, 
and  during  that  long  period  may  not  grow  a  trunk  above  five  inches  in 
diameter  and  four  feet  high.  The  Engelmann  spruce  is  naturally  a 
long-lived  tree,  and  large  trunks  are  500  or  600  years  old;  and  trees 
ordinarily  cut  for  lumber  are  300  or  400  years  old.  When  the  tree  is 
young,  its  form  is  symmetrical,  the  longest  branches  being  near  the 
ground,  the  shortest  near  the  top;  but  in  crowded  stands  the  trunk 
finally  clears  itself.  Engelmann  spruce  lumber  is  usually  full  of  small 
knots,  each  of  which  represents  a  limb  which  was  shaded  off  as  the  tree 
advanced  in  age.  The  wood  is  lighter  than  white  pine,  and  is  the  lightest 
of  the  spruces,  the  weight  being  21.49  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  not 
strong,  and  it  rates  low  in  elasticity.  The  wood  is  pale  yellow,  tinged 
with  red.     The  thick  sapwood  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  heart. 


136  American  Forest  Trees 

It  would  be  difficult  to  compile  a  list  of  this  tree's  uses,  because  in  markets 
it  hardly  ever  carries  its  right  name.  It  is  used  for  fuel  and  charcoal  in 
the  region  of  its  growth ;  also  as  farm  timber,  and  as  props  and  lagging  in 
mines.  When  it  goes  to  market,  it  is  manufactured  into  doors,  window 
frames,  sash,  interior  finish  for  houses,  and  for  purposes  along  with  other 
spruces.  Large  quantities  of  this  wood  will  be  accessible  when  lumber- 
men penetrate  remote  mountain  regions  where  it  grows.  It  may  be 
expected  to  increase  in  importance.  It  is  occasionally  planted  in 
eastern  states  as  an  ornament. 

Blue  Spruce  {Picea  parryana)  is  found  among  mountains  in  Colorado,  Utah, 
and  Wyoming,  from  6,500  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  attains  a  height  of  150 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  under  favorable  circumstances,  but  its  usual  size  is  little 
more  than  half  tf  that.  Its  name  is  given  on  account  of  the  color  of  its  foliage,  but 
it  has  other  names,  among  them  being  Parry's  spruce,  balsam,  white  spruce,  silver 
spruce,  Colorado  blue  spruce,  and  prickly  spruce,  the  last  name  referring  to  the 
sharp-pointed  leaves  which  are  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  Cones  are  three  inches 
long,  and  usually  grow  near  the  top  of  the  tree.  It  is  not  unusual  for  blue  spruce 
trees  to  divide  near  the  ground  in  three  or  four  branches.  In  its  youth,  particularly  in 
open  ground,  blue  spruce  develops  a  conical  crown.  The  wood  is  lighter  than  white 
pine,  is  soft,  weak,  and  pale  brown  or  nearly  white  in  color.  The  sapwood  is  hardly 
distinguishable  from  the  heart.  This  is  a  valuable  tree  for  ornamental  planting;  but 
in  later  years  it  loses  its  lower  limbs,  and  becomes  less  desirable. 

Weeping  Spruce  (Picea  breweriana)  is  of  little  commercial  importance 
because  of  scarcity.  It  grows  among  the  mountains  of  northern  California  and 
southern  Oregon,  at  elevations  of  from  4,000  to  8,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  leaves 
are  an  inch  or  less  in  length,  the  cones  from  two  to  four  inches  long.  They  fall  soon 
after  they  scatter  their  seeds.  This  tree  is  named  on  account  of  its  drooping  branch- 
lets,  some  of  which  hang  down  eight  feet.  The  wood  seems  not  to  have  been  in- 
vestigated, but  its  color  is  pale  yellowish  to  very  light  brown,  and  the  annual  rings  are 
rather  narrow.  The  tree  ought  to  be  valuable  for  ornamental  planting,  but  nurseries 
have  experienced  much  difficulty  in  making  it  grow.  It  grows  on  high  and  dry 
mountains  where  few  ever  see  it,  but  refuses  to  become  domesticated  or  to  grace 
eastern  parks. 


CYPRESvS 


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Cypress 

CYPRESS 

(Taxodium  Distichum) 

THE  name  cypress  has  been  used  quite  loosely  in  this  country  and 
the  old  world,  and  botanists  have  taken  particular  care  to  explain 
what  true  cypress  is.  It  is  of  no  advantage  in  the  present  case  to  join  in 
the  discussion,  and  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  American  cypresses  according 
to  the  authorized  list  published  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  Two 
genera,  one  having  two  and  the  other  six  species,  are  classed  as  cypress. 
These  are  Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  distichum).  Pond  Cypress  {Taxodium 
imbricarium),  Monterey  Cypress  (Cupressusmacrocarpa),  Gowen  Cypress 
(Cupressus  goveniana).  Dwarf  Cypress  {Cupressus  pygmaea)  Macnab 
Cypress  {Cupressus  macnabiana) ,  Arizona  Cypress  (Cupressus  arizonica), 
and  Smooth  Cypress  {Cupressus  glabra).  The  first  two  grow  in  the 
southern  states,  and  the  others  in  the  Far  West.  Bald  cypress,  which  is 
generally  known  simply  as  cypress  in  the  region  where  it  grows,  is  more 
important  as  a  source  of  lumber  than  are  all  the  others  combined.  It 
probably  supplies  ninty-nine  per  cent  of  all  cypress  sold  in  this  country. 
Its  range  is  from  southern  Delaware  to  Florida,  westward  to  the  Gulf 
coast  region  of  Texas,  north  through  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  eastern 
Mississippi  and  Tennessee,  southeastern  Missouri,  western  Kentucky 
and  sparsely  in  southern  Illinois  and  southwestern  Indiana.  It  is  a 
deep  swamp  tree,  and  it  is  never  of  much  importance  far  from  lagoons, 
inundated  tracts,  and  the  low  banks  of  rivers.  Water  that  is  a  little 
brackish  from  the  inwash  of  tides  does  not  injm-e  the  tree,  but  the 
presence  of  a  little  salt  is  claimed  by  some  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
wood.  It  is  lumbered  under  difficulties.  The  deep  water  and  miry 
swamps  where  it  grows  best  must  be  reckoned  with.  Some  of  the  ground 
is  not  dry  for  several  years  at  a  time.  Neither  felling  nor  hauling  is 
possible  in  the  manner  practiced  in  the  southern  pineries.  Owing  to  the 
great  weight  of  the  green  wood,  it  will  not  float  unless  killed  by  being 
girdled  for  a  year  or  more  in  advance  of  its  being  felled.  In  the  older 
logging  operations,  cypress  was  girdled  and  snaked  out  to  water- 
ways and  floated  to  the  mills.  Lately  many  cypress  operations  are 
carried  on  by  the  building  of  railroads  through  the  swamps,  which  are 
largely '  on  piling  and  stringers,  although  occasionally  earth  fills  are 
utilized.  The  usual  size  of  matmre  cypress  ranges  from  seventy-five  to 
140  feet  in  height  and  three  to  six  in  diameter. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  rather  weak,  moderately  stiff,  and  the  grain 
is  usually  straight.  The  narrow  annual  rings  indicate  slow  growth. 
The  summerwood  is  comparatively  broad  and  is  slightly  resinous; 

139 


140  American  Forest  Trees 

medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  obscure.  The  wood  is  light  to  dark 
brown,  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  At  one  time  specimens  of  the  wood 
in  the  markets  of  the  world  were  known  as  black  or  white  cypress, 
according  as  they  sank  or  floated.  Much  of  the  dark  cypress  wood  is 
now  known  as  black  cypress  in  the  foreign  markets,  where  it  is  employ- 
ed chiefly  for  tank  and  vat  building.  Individual  specimens  of  the  wood 
in  some  localities  are  tinted  in  a  variety  of  shades  and  some  of  the  natural 
designs  are  extremely  beautiful. 

The  wood  is  reputed  to  be  among  the  most  durable  in  this  country 
when  exposed  to  soil  and  weather.  Some  of  it  deserves  that  reputation, 
but  other  does  not.  Well-authenticated  cases  are  cited  where  cypress 
has  remained  sound  many  years— in  some  instance  a  hundred  or  more — 
when  subjected  to  alternate  dampness  and  dryness.  Such  conditions 
afford  severe  tests.  In  other  cases  cypress  has  been  known  to  decay  as 
quickly  as  pine. 

Historical  cases  from  the  old  world  are  sometimes  cited  to  show  the 
wonderful  lasting  properties  of  cypress.  Doors  and  statues,  exposed 
more  or  less  to  weather,  are  said  to  have  stood  many  centuries.  The 
evidence  has  little  value  as  far  as  this  wood  is  concerned.  In  the  first 
place,  the  long  records  claimed  are  subjects  for  suspicion;  and  in  the 
second  place,  it  was  not  the  American  cypress  that  was  used — and 
probably  no  cypress — but  the  cedar  of  Lebanon. 

Sound  cypress  logs  have  been  dug  from  deep  excavations  near  New 
Orleans,  and  geologists  believe  they  had  lain  there  30,000  years.  That 
would  be  a  telling  testament  to  endiu-ance  were  it  not  that  any  other 
wood  completely  out  of  reach  of  air  would  last  as  long. 

The  estimated  stand  of  cypress  in  the  South  is  about  20,000,000,000 
feet.  The  annual  cut,  including  shingles, exceeds  1,000,000,000  feet.  New 
growth  is  not  coming  on.  The  traveller  through  the  South  occasionally 
sees  a  small  clump  of  little  cypresses,  but  such  are  few  and  far  between. 
It  was  formerly  quite  generally  believed  that  cypress  in  deep  swamps, 
where  old  and  venerable  stands  are  found,  was  not  reproducing,  and  that 
no  little  trees  were  to  be  seen.  It  was  argued  from  this,  that  some 
climatic  or  geographic  change  had  taken  place,  and  that  the  present 
stand  of  cypress  would  be  the  last  of  its  race.  More  careful  investigation, 
however,  has  shown  that  the  former  belief  was  erroneous.  Seedling 
cypresses  are  found  occasionally  in  the  deepest  swamps.  Probably 
cypress  which  has  not  been  disturbed  by  man  is  reproducing  as  well  now 
as  at  any  time  in  the  past.  The  tree  lives  three  or  four  centuries,  and  if 
it  leaves  one  seedling  to  take  its  place  it  has  done  its  part  toward  per- 
petuating the  species.  Fire,  the  mortal  enemy  of  forests,  seldom  hurts 
cypress,  because  the  undergrowth  is  not  dry  enough  to  bxurn. 


American  Forest  Trees  141 

The  uses  of  cypress  are  so  nearly  universal  that  a  list  is  impossible. 
In  Illinois  alone  it  is  reported  for  seventy-eight  different  purposes. 
There  is  not  a  state,  and  scarcely  a  large  wood-using  factory,  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  which  does  not  demand  more  or  less  cypress. 

The  tree  is  graceful  when  young,  but  ragged  and  uncouth  when 
old.  Though  a  needleleaf  tree,  it  yearly  sheds  its  foliage  and  most  of  its 
twigs.  The  fruit  is  a  cone  about  one  inch  in  diameter;  and  the  seed  is 
equipped  with  a  wing  one-fourth  inch  long  and  one-eighth  inch  wide. 

When  cypress  stands  in  soft  ground  which  most  of  the  time  is 
under  water,  the  roots  send  up  peculiar  growths  known  as  knees.  They 
rise  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  above  the  siu-face  of  the  mud,  and 
extend  above  the  water  at  ordinary  stages.  They  are  sharp  cones, 
generally  hollow.  It  is  believed  their  function  is  to  furnish  air  to  the 
tree's  roots,  and  also  to  afford  anchorage  to  the  roots  in  the  soft  mud. 
When  the  water  is  drained  away,  the  knees  die. 

Cypress  is  widely  planted  as  an  ornament,  and  a  dozen  or  more 
varieties  have  been  developed  in  cultivation. 

Pond  Cypress  (Taxodium  imbricarium)  so  closely  resembles  bald  cypress 
with  which  it  is  associated  that  the  two  were  once  supposed  to  be  the  same.  Pond 
cypress  averages  smaller  and  its  range  is  more  circumscribed.  The  name  pond  cy- 
press, by  which  it  is  popularly  known  in  Georgia,  indicates  the  localities  where  it  is 
oftenest  found.  It  is  the  prevailing  cypress  in  the  Okefenoke  swamp  in  southeastern 
Georgia.  The  general  aspect  of  the  foliage  and  fruit  is  the  same  as  of  bald  cypress. 
No  detailed  examination  of  the  wood  seems  to  have  been  made,  but  in  general  appear- 
ance it  is  like  the  other  cypress.  It  is  said  that  little  of  it  ever  gets  to  sawmills 
because  it  grows  in  situations  where  logging  is  inconvenient. 

Monterey  Cypress  (Cupressus  macrocarpa).  This  tree  has  only  one  name 
and  that  is  due  to  its  place  of  growth  on  the  shores  of  Monterey  bay,  California.  Its 
range  is  more  restricted  than  that  of  any  other  American  softwood.  It  does  not 
much  exceed  150  acres,  though  the  trees  are  scattered  in  a  narrow  strip  for  two  miles 
along  the  coast.  They  approach  so  close  the  breakers  that  spray  flies  over  them  in 
time  of  storm.  Trees  exposed  to  the  sweep  of  the  wind  are  gnarled  and  of  fantastic 
shapes.  Their  crowns  are  broad  and  flat  like  an  umbrella,  but  ragged  and  unsym- 
metrical  in  outline.  That  form  offers  least  resistance  to  wind,  and  most  surface  to 
the  sun.  The  trees  take  the  best  possible  advantage  of  their  opportunities.  Tall 
crowns  would  be  carried  away  by  wind ;  and  the  flat  tops,  with  a  mass  of  green  foliage, 
catch  all  the  sunlight  possible.  They  need  it,  for  they  grow  in  fog,  and  sunshine  is 
scarce.  Sheltered  trees  develop  pyramidal  tops.  It  is  widely  planted  in  this  and 
other  countries,  and  when  conditions  are  favorable,  it  is  graceful  and  symmetrical. 
The  largest  trees  are  from  sixty  to  seventy  feet  tall,  others  are  five  or  six  in  diameter; 
but  the  tallest  trees  and  the  largest  trunks  seldom  go  together.  The  cones  are  an 
inch  or  more  in  length,  and  each  contains  about  100  seeds.  The  leaves  fall  the  third 
and  fourth  years.  Wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  durable,  but  is  too  scarce  to  be 
of  value  as  lumber,  even  if  the  trunks  were  suitable  for  sawlogs.  The  Monterey 
cypress  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  botanists  and  also  to  physical  geographers.  The 
few  trees  on  the  shore  of  Monterey  bay  appear  to  be  the  last  remnant  of  a  species 
which  was  once  more  extensive.     The  ocean  is  eating  away  the  coast  at  that  point. 


142  American  Forest  Trees 

Fragments  of  hills,  cut  sheer  down  from  top  to  the  breakers  beneath,  are  plainly  the 
last  remnants  of  ranges  which  once  extended  westward,  but  have  been  washed  away 
by  the  encroaching  waves.  No  one  knows  how  much  of  the  former  coast  has  been 
destroyed.  Apparently  the  former  range  of  the  cypress  was  principally  on  land  now 
swallowed  up  by  the  encroaching  ocean.  A  mere  fringe  of  the  trees — a  belt  about 
200  yards  wide  along  the  beach — remains,  and  the  sea  is  undermining  them  one  by 
one  and  carrying  them  down.  So  rapidly  is  the  undermining  process  going  on  that 
many  large  roots  of  some  of  the  trees  are  exposed  to  view. 

Arizona  Cypre.ss  (Cupresstis  arizonica),  as  its  name  implies,  is  an  Arizona 
tree.  It  forms  considerable  forests  in  the  eastern,  central,  and  southern  parts  of  the 
state,  and  is  found  also  in  Mexico.  It  grows  at  elevations  up  to  6,000  feet.  Because 
of  the  small  population  in  the  region  where  this  cypress  grows,  it  has  never  been 
much  used,  but  the  size  of  the  trees  and  the  character  of  the  wood  fit  it  for  many 
purposes.  Its  growth  is  often  quite  rapid,  and  the  timber  is  soft,  light,  and  with 
well-defined  summerwood.  Its  usual  color  is  gray,  but  occasionally  faint  streaks  of 
yellow  appear.  The  leaves  fall  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  years;  cones  are  small  and 
flat;  and  the  small  seeds  are  winged.  It  is  believed  by  persons  familiar  with  Arizona 
cypress  that  it  will  attain  consideralile  importance  when  the  building  of  railroads 
and  the  settlement  of  the  country  make  the  forests  accessible.  The  wood  is  durable 
in  contact  with  the  soil. 

Smooth  Cypress  (Cupressus  glabra)  ranges  in  Arizona  and  is  not  believed  to 
have  or  to  promise  much  importance  as  a  source  of  lumber  supply.  Its  name  was 
given  on  account  of  the  smoothness  of  the  bark.  It  is  one  of  the  latest  species  to  be 
given  a  place  among  the  cypresses,  and  was  described  and  named  by  George  B. 
Sudworth  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service. 


BALSAM   FIR 


BALSAM  FIR 

(Abies  Balsamea) 

BALSAM  fir  is  the  usual  name  applied  to  this  tree  in  New  England, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
Ontario.  The  shorter  name  balsam  suffices  in  some  parts  of  that  region, 
and  particularly  in  New  York,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont.  Because 
it  is  common  north  of  the  international  boxmdary,  the  name  Canada 
balsam  has  been  given  it  in  some  regions.  In  Delaware  it  is  known  as 
balm  of  Gilead,  but  that  name  belongs  to  a  tree  of  the  Cottonwood  group, 
(Populus  balsamijera)  which  is  a  broadleaf  species.  In  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  a  word  of  distinction  is  added,  and  it  is  called  balm  of 
Gilead  fir.  Toward  the  southern  limit  of  its  range  it  is  spoken  of  as  fir 
pine  and  blister  pine.  New  York  Indians  knew  the  tree  as  blisters. 
They  referred  to  the  pockets  under  the  bark  of  young  trees  and  near  the 
tops  of  mature  trunks,  in  which  resin  collected.  The  name  balsam 
refers  to  that  characteristic  also,  as  does  the  word  balm.  In  some  parts 
of  Canada  the  tree  is  known  as  silver  pine,  and  as  silver  spruce.  The 
secretion  of  resin  in  bark  blisters  is  a  characteristic  of  several  firs. 

The  list  of  names  and  the  locality  of  their  use  indicate  fairly  well 
the  geographical  range  of  balsam  fir.  Its  northern  limit  forms  a  line 
across  eastern  Canada  from  Labrador  to  Hudson  bay.  From  Hudson 
bay  its  northern  boundary  trends  northwestward  and  reaches  the 
vicinity  of  Great  Bear  lake.  In  the  United  States  it  grows  westward 
to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Pennsylvania.  It  is  cut  for  lumber 
in  eleven  states. 

In  a  range  so  large  and  including  situations  so  various,  it  is  natural 
that  the  tree  should  vary  greatly  in  size.  In  the  Lake  States  the  common 
height  is  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  and  the  diameter  is  twelve  or  fifteen  inches. 
Young  balsam  firs  grow  vigorously  when  the  ground  is  suitable  and 
their  tops  receive  sufiicient  light.  In  lumbered  regions  in  the  Lake 
States,  this  fir  gets  a  foothold  in  the  shade  of  a  dense  growth  of  paper 
birch  and  other  quickly-growing  species ;  and  in  a  few  years  the  pointed, 
intensely  green  spires  of  the  balsams  may  be  seen  piercing  the  canopy  of 
other  young  tree  tops,  and  shooting  above  into  the  light.  This  is 
accomplished  after  a  struggle  of  some  years  in  the  shade;  but  the  firs 
ultimately  win  their  way  upward,  and  in  a  few  years  they  shade  to  death 
most  of  their  broadleaf  associates.  If  they  are  in  competition  with 
northern  white  cedar  or  tamarack,  they  are  not  always  successful  in 
winning  first  place. 

The  leaves  of  balsam  fir  are  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-fom"th 


146  American  Forest  Trees 

inches  long.  They  are  green  and  lustrous  above  and  silver  white  below, 
the  whiteness  due  to  stomata  on  their  undersides.  On  young  twigs 
the  leaves  bristle  out  on  all  sides  and  are  very  numerous  and  crowded 
together,  but  on  older  branches  the  leaves  are  more  scattered,  due  to  the 
dropping  of  some  of  them.  It  is  their  habit  to  adhere  to  the  stems  about 
eight  years. 

The  leaves  of  balsam  fir  possess  a  pleasing  and  characteristic  odor 
which  is  turned  to  account  in  a  practical  wa3^  The  small  needles  are 
stripped  from  the  branches  in  large  quantities,  cleaned,  dried,  and  are 
used  for  stuffing  sofa  pillows,  cushions,  and  other  kinds  of  upholstery. 
The  odor  persists  a  long  time.  Much  of  the  collecting  of  the  needles  is 
done  in  summer  as  a  pastime  by  summer  campers  in  the  northern 
woods.  The  needles  are  sufficiently  tough  to  stand  much  wear  in  pil- 
lows, and  they  are  still  odorous  when  long  use  has  ground  them  to 
powder. 

The  cones  of  balsam  fir  follow  the  fashion  of  all  species  of  fir,  and 
stand  erect  on  the  branches.  Seeds  are  one-fourth  inch  in  length  and 
are  winged.  The  wood  is  of  approximately  the  same  weight  as  white 
pine,  but  it  falls  considerably  below  white  pine  in  strength  and  stiff- 
ness. It  is  of  moderately  rapid  growth  when  conditions  are  favora- 
ble, and  the  annual  ring  has  a  fair  proportion  of  summerwood.  The 
yearly  rings  are  quit  distinct.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous,  and 
for  a  softwood  they  are  prominent.  When  a  log  is  quarter-sawed,  and 
the  surfaces  of  the  boards  are  planed,  the  wood  presents  a  silvery  appear- 
ance, but  it  is  too  monotonous  to  be  very  attractive.  The  heartwood 
is  pale  brown,  streaked  with  yellow,  the  thick  sapwood  much  lighter 
in  color.     It  is  perishable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 

Pulp  manufacturers  are  the  largest  users  of  balsam  fir.  About 
three  per  cent  of  all  the  pulpwood  cut  in  the  United  States  in  1910  was 
from  this  species.  Its  use  is  on  the  increase,  or  appears  to  be ;  but  recent 
statistics  relating  to  this  wood  cannot  be  safely  compared  with  returns 
for  former  years,  because  the  custom  of  mixing  fir  with  spruce  and  other 
pulpwoods  formerly  prevailed  in  New  England,  and  it  was  then  not 
possible  to  determine  exactly  how  much  fir  reached  the  market.  At  the 
present  time  fir  goes  under  its  own  name,  and  the  output  exceeds  132,000 
cords,  which  is  equivalent  to  105,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  yearly. 

Eleven  states  contribute  to  the  balsam  fir  lumber  cut,  but  most 
is  supplied  by  Maine,  Minnesota,  Vermont,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin. 
The  total  for  1910  was  74,-580,000  feet.  Much  of  it  is  employed  in  rough 
form  for  fences  and  buildings,  while  other  is  further  manufactured  by 
planing  mills  and  factories.  Car  builders  employ  it  in  several  ways.  It 
serves  as  doors,  siding,  lining,  and  roofing  for  freight  cars.     It  is  not  a 


American  Forest  Trees  147 

durable  wood  when  exposed  to  weather.  The  largest  reported  use  of  the 
wood  in  New  England  is  by  box  makers.  Massachusetts  alone  works 
nearly  15,000,000  feet  a  year  into  crates  and  shipping  boxes.  Its 
uses  in  the  Lake  States  are  more  varied.  The  makers  of  berry,  fruit,  and 
vegetable  baskets  draw  supplies  from  the  wood.  Some  of  the  product 
is  of  thin  split  slats,  and  other  of  veneer  or  sawed  material. 

The  light  weight  and  white  color  of  balsam  fir  make  it  acceptable  to 
the  manufacturers  of  excelsior.  The  product  is  employed  in  packing 
merchandise  for  shipment,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  upholstery.  The 
wood  fills  a  rather  important  place  in  the  woodenware  industry,  where 
its  white  color  and  light  weight  constitute  its  most  important  recom- 
mendations.    It  is  sawed  into  staves  for  pails  and  tubs. 

Though  balsam  fir  has  little  figure  and  its  appearance  is  rather 
common,  it  finds  its  way  to  planing  mills  and  woodworking  shops  where 
it  is  made  into  ceiling,  newel  posts,  molding,  railing,  spindles,  chair- 
boards,  and  other  interior  finish. 

The  most  widely  known  commercial  product  manufactured  from 
this  tree  is  Canada  balsam.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  manufactured 
article  except  what  is  done  in  nature's  laboratory,  and  the  product  is 
the  resin  stored  under  bark  blisters.  The  resin  is  transparent,  and  is 
employed  by  microscopists  in  mounting  objects  for  examination.  Little 
machinery  or  apparatus  is  used  in  removing  the  viscid  fluid  from  the 
pockets  in  the  bark.  With  a  knife  the  thin,  soft  blister  is  slit  and  the 
resin  is  scraped  out.  All  kinds  of  claims  of  medicinal  virtue  are  made 
for  balsam  resin  in  the  region  where  the  tree  grows;  but  the  treatment 
in  most  cases  effects  cures— if  any  cures  are  really  effected — by  appeals 
to  faith  and  the  imagination. 

Balsam  fir  owes  a  large  part  of  its  importance  to  its  abundance.  It 
is  not  exactly  a  swamp  tree,  but  it  does  best  in  damp  situations  where 
the  ground  is  moist  and  cool  in  summer.  Only  in  periods  of  protracted 
drought  does  the  ground  litter  become  sufficiently  dry  to  burn  fiercely, 
and  to  that  fact  is  due  much  of  the  promise  of  future  supply  of  balsam 
fir.  That  which  grows  on  the  dry  uplands  may  fall  prey  to  forest  fires, 
but  that  in  the  damp  flats,  associated  with  northern  white  cedar  and 
tamarack,  will  hold  its  ground  and  continue  to  supply  demand. 

Balsam  fir  has  an  importance  which  can  not  be  wholly  measured 
in  feet,  pounds,  cords,  or  dollars.  Many  of  the  choicest  Christmas  trees 
which  in  December  go  by  tens  of  thousands  to  the  cities,  are  of  this  tree. 
Its  form  is  almost  perfect,  being  conical,  broad  near  the  bottom,  and 
running  to  a  sharp  apex.  The  deep  green  of  the  needles,  which  retain 
their  color  from  two  weeks  to  a  month  after  the  trunk  is  severed,  gives 
balsam  Christmas  trees  much  of  their  popularity.     The  trees  are  cut 


148  American  Forest  Trees 

from  Maine  to  Michigan,  and  many  are  shipped  across  the  international 
boundary  from  Canada.  The  custom  of  cutting  Christmas  trees  is 
often  condemned  as  a  waste  of  resources.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
destruction  in  one  month  of  1,000,000  young  trees  is  equivalent  to  the 
destruction  of  500,000,000  feet  of  lumber,  because,  if  allowed  to  reach 
matiu-ity,  they  would  yield  that  much  lumber.  That  argument  does 
not  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  not  one  of  the  young  trees  in 
ten  would  reach  maturity  if  left  to  the  course  of  nature. 

When  Gifford  Pinchot  was  United  States  forester,  a  protest  against 
the  cutting  of  Christmas  trees  was  formally  laid  before  him.  It  was 
generally  believed  that  he  would  declare  that  the  waste  ought  to  be 
stopped  and  would  set  his  disapproval  on  the  practice ;  but  he  did  noth- 
ing of  the  sort.  He  declared  that  the  forests  are  for  the  use  of  the 
people  and  that  they  can  serve  in  no  better  way  than  by  supplying 
every  child  in  the  land  with  a  Christmas  tree  once  a  year. 


FRASER  FIR 


4      ■^'' 

^ifc.'. 

• 

..■■'** 

■  T  ■ 

4 

Fraser  Fir 

FRASER  FIR 

(Abies  Eraser i) 

THE  people  who  are  acquainted  with  this  interesting  and  somewhat 
rare  tree  have  seen  to  it  that  it  does  not  want  for  names.  Some  of 
these  names  are  both  definitive  and  descriptive,  while  others  are  neither. 
Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  West  Virginia  fm-nish  the  names.  With- 
in the  tree's  range  in  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina  it  is  often  known 
as  balsam  without  any  qualifying  word,  and  that  is  quite  sufficient,  for 
no  other  fir  or  balsam  grows  within  its  range.  In  the  same  region  it  is 
called  balsam  fir.  That  is  the  common  name  of  its  northern  relative, 
but  there  is  little  likelihood  of  confusing  the  two  species,  for  their  ranges 
do  not  overlap  much,  if  they  touch  at  all,  which  they  probably  do  not. 
In  Tennessee  the  name  is  reversed  and  instead  of  balsam  fir  it  is  fir 
balsam.  It  is  likewise  known  as  double  fir  balsam,  but  why  "double"  is 
added  to  the  name  is  not  clear.  Similar  mystery  attaches  to  the  name 
"single  spruce,"  which  is  applied  to  the  balsam  fir  in  the  interior  of 
British  America.  The  southern  Appalachian  tree  is  called  she  balsam 
and  she  balsam  fir.  These  names  have  no  scientific  basis,  and  they 
appear  to  have  originated  in  a  desire  to  distinguish  this  tree  from  the  red 
spruce  with  which  it  is  associated.  The  spruce  is  called  "he  balsam." 
Artificial  names  like  these  are  not  necessary  to  distinguish  red  spruce 
from  Fraser  fir,  as  very  slight  acquaintance  should  enable  anybody  to 
tell  one  from  the  other  at  sight,  and  to  see  clearly  that  they  are  not  of  the 
same  species.  Mountain  balsam,  a  North  Carolina  name  for  this  fir,  is 
well  taken,  for  it  is  distinctly  a  mountain  species.  The  name  healing 
balsam  is  given  in  acknowledgment  of  the  supposed  medicinal  properties 
of  the  resin  which  collects  in  blisters  or  pockets  under  the  bark  of  young 
trees  and  near  the  tops  of  old.  In  West  Virginia,  where  this  tree  reaches 
the  northern  limits  of  its  habitat,  it  is  called  blister  pine,  on  account  of 
the  resin  pockets.  In  the  same  region  it  is  called  stackpole  pine, 
because  farmers  who  mow  mountain  meadows  use  straight,  very  light 
poles  cut  from  this  fir  round  which  to  build  haystacks. 

This  tree  is  decidedly  an  inhabitant  of  the  high,  exposed  localities, 
being  found  entirely  in  the  upper  elevations  of  the  southern  Appa- 
lachian mountains,  either  forming  extensive  pure  stands  or  growing 
in  the  company  of  red  spruce  {P-icea  rubens),  with  a  scattering  of  various 
stunted  hardwoods,  as  birch,  mountain  ash,  cherry  and  usually  with  an 
undergrowth  of  rhododendron. 

Fraser  fir's  range  extends  from  the  high  mountains  of  North 
Carolina,  where  it  grows  6,000  feet  above  sea  level,  northward  into 


152  American  Forest  Trees 

West  Virginia,  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Maryland  line,  at  an  altitude 
of  3,300  feet.  The  tree  is  not  found  in  all  regions  between  its  northern 
and  southern  limits.  Its  best  development  is  in  the  southern  part  of  its 
range. 

On  the  upper  limits  of  its  habitat  the  tree  presents  a  decidedly 
pictiu-esque  appearance,  being  gnarled  and  twisted  and  plainly  showing 
the  results  of  its  long  struggle  for  life  and  development.  It  is  always 
noticeable  that  on  the  exposed  side  the  limbs  are  so  short  as  to  be  almost 
missing  and  on  the  opposite  side  they  grow  out  straight  and  long,  appear- 
ing to  fly  before  the  wind.  These  limbs  are  sometimes  of  as  great  a 
girth  for  five  or  six  feet  of  their  length  as  any  part  of  the  main  stem, 
and  have  a  singular  look,  seeming  to  be  all  out  of  proportion  to  the  rest  of 
the  tree.  The  older  trees  are  vested  in  a  smooth,  yellowish-gray,  mossy 
bark,  which  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  balsam  fir.  The  bark  is 
thin,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  on  young  trunks,  and  half  an  inch  near 
the  ground  on  old  ones.  The  leaves  are  usually  half  an  inch  long, 
sometimes  one  inch,  and  their  lower  sides  are  whitish,  which  tint  is  due 
to  abundant  white  stomata.  In  that  respect  they  resemble  leaves  of 
balsam  fir  and  hemlock. 

The  cones,  like  those  of  other  species  of  fir,  stand  erect  on  the 
branches,  and  average  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  They 
are  smoother  than  the  cones  of  most  pines.  They  mature  in  September. 
The  winged  seeds  average  one-eighth  inch  in  length,  and  are  fairly  abun- 
dant. The  Fraser  fir  grows  as  tall  as  balsam  fir,  from  forty  to  sixty 
feet,  and  the  trunk  diameter  is  greater,  being  sometimes  thirty  inches, 
though  half  of  that  is  nearer  an  average.  When  of  pole  size,  that  is, 
from  five  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  Fraser  fir  is  often  tall,  straight  and 
shapely.  Its  form,  however,  depends  upon  the  situation  in  which  it 
grows.  If  in  the  open,  it  develops  a  relatively  short  trunk  and  a  broad, 
pyramidal  crown.  This  fir  differs  from  balsam  fir  in  its  choice  of  situa- 
tion. The  latter,  though  not  exactly  a  swamp  tree,  prefers  damp 
ground,  while  Fraser  fir  floiu-ishes  on  slopes  and  mountain  tops. 

On  the  mountains  of  western  North  Carolina  fir  grows  in  mixture 
with  red  spruce.  Sometimes  the  fir  is  fifty  per  cent  of  the  stand,  but 
usually  it  is  less,  and  frequently  not  more  than  fifteen  per  cent.  Few  fir 
trees  in  that  locality  are  two  feet  in  diameter.  They  grow  with  fair 
rapidity  in  their  early  years,  but  decline  in  rate  as  age  comes  on.  It 
may  be  observed  in  traveling  through  the  stands  of  mixed  spruce  and  fir 
among  the  high  ranges  of  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains  that  the 
proportion  of  spruce  is  much  higher  in  old  stands  than  in  young.  That  is 
due  to  the  greater  age  to  which  spruce  lives.  Trees  of  that  species 
continue  to  stand  after  the  firs  have  died  of  old  age.     On  the  other  hand. 


American  Forest  Trees  153 

fir  outnumbers  spruce  in  many  young  stands.  That  is  because  fir 
reproduces  better  than  spruce,  and  grows  with  more  vigor  at  first.  In 
stands  of  second  growth  the  fir  often  predominates.  It  depends  to  some 
extent  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the  second  growth  has  its  start. 
Fir  does  not  germinate  well  if  the  ground  has  been  bared  by  fire  and  the 
humus  burned.  Consequently,  old  bums  do  not  readily  grow  up  in  fir. 
The  best  stands  occiur  where  the  natural  conditions  have  not  been 
much  disturbed  further  than  by  removing  the  growth.  Fortunately 
conditions  on  the  summit  and  elevated  slopes  of  the  southern  Appa- 
lachians do  not  favor  destructive  forest  fires.  Rain  is  frequent  and 
abundant,  and  the  shade  cast  by  evergreen  trees  keeps  the  humus  too 
moist  for  fire.  To  this  condition  is  due  the  comparative  immunity 
from  fire  of  the  high  mountain  forests  of  fir  and  spruce.  Sometimes, 
however,  fires  sweep  through  fine  stands  with  disastrous  results.  The 
destruction  is  more  serious  because  no  second  forest  of  evergreens  is 
likely  on  tracts  which  have  been  severely  burned. 

A  report  by  the  State  Geological  Survey  on  forest  conditions  in 
western  North  Carolina,  issued  in  1911,  predicted  that  spruce  and  fir 
forests  aggregating  from  100,000  to  150,000  acres  among  the  high  moun- 
tain ranges,  will  become  barren  tracts,  because  of  the  destructive  effect 
of  fires  stripping  the  ground  of  humus. 

The  cutters  of  pulpwood  in  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains 
take  Fraser  fir  wherever  they  find  it,  mix  it  with  spruce,  and  the  two 
woods  go  to  market  as  one.  Statistics  show  the  annual  cut  of  both,  but 
do  not  give  them  separately.  The  output  of  spruce,  including  fir,  south 
of  Pennsylvania,  in  1910  was  115,993  cords,  equivalent  to  about  80,- 
000,000  feet,  board  measure.  Most  of  it  was  red  spruce,  but  some  was 
fir,  and  in  North  Carolina  probably  twenty-five  per  cent  was  of  that 
species.  The  total  pulpwood  cut  in  that  state  was  14,509  cords  of  the 
two  woods  combined,  and  probably  3,800  cords  were  Fraser  fir. 

The  wood  of  Fraser  fir  is  very  light.  An  air  dry  sample  from  Roan 
mountain,  N.  C,  weighed  22.22  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  That  is  lighter 
than  balsam  fir,  which  is  classed  among  the  very  light  woods.  It  is 
stronger  than  balsam  fir  by  twenty-five  per  cent.  The  wood  is  soft, 
compact  and  the  bands  of  summerwood  in  the  annual  rings  are  rather 
broad  and  light  colored  and  are  not  conspicuous.  The  medullary  rays 
are  thin  but  numerous.  The  color  is  light  brown,  the  sapwood  mostly 
white. 

This  wood  is  not  of  much  commercial  value  except  for  pulp.  It  is 
not  abundant,  and  it  is  not  suited  to  many  pm-poses.  It  is  suitable 
for  boxes,  being  light  in  weight  and  moderately  strong;  but  other 
woods  which  grow  in  the  same  region  are  as  good  in  all  respects  and  are 


154  American  Forest  Trees 

more  abundant,  and  will  be  used  in  preference  to  fir  for  that  purpose. 
The  decrease  in  area  on  account  of  fires,  and  in  quantity  because  of  pulp- 
wood  operations,  indicates  that  forest  grown  Fraser  fir  has  seen  its  best 
days.  On  the  other  hand,  the  United  States  Forest  Service  has  acquired 
tracts  of  land  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  where  this  species  has  its 
natm-al  home,  and  the  growth  will  be  protected  from  fires  and  from 
destructive  cutting,  and  there  is  no  danger  that  the  species  will  be 
exterminated. 

It  is  an  interesting  tree.  It  contributes  to  the  pleasure  of  tourists 
and  campers  among  the  southern  mountains.  The  fragrance  of  its 
leaves  and  young  branches  add  a  zest  to  the  summer  camp.  The 
traveler  who  is  overtaken  in  the  woods  by  the  coming  of  night,  prepares 
his  bed  of  the  boughs  of  this  tree  and  of  red  spruce  and  sleeps  soundly 
beneath  an  evergreen  canopy.  Pillows  and  cushions  stuffed  with  fir 
needles  carry  memories  of  the  mountains  to  distant  cities. 

In  one  respect  this  tree  of  the  high  mountains  is  like  the  untamed 
Indians  who  once  roamed  in  that  region :  it  refuses  to  be  civilized.  The 
tree  has  been  planted  in  parks  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  but  it  does 
not  prosper.  Its  form  loses  something  of  the  grace  and  symmetry  which 
it  exhibits  in  its  mountain  home,  and  its  life  is  short.  Those  who  wish 
to  see  Fraser  fir  at  its  best  must  see  it  where  natiu-e  planted  it  high  on 
the  southern  mountains. 

Arizona  Cork  Fir  {Abies  arizonica)  very  closely  resembles  forms  of  the  alpine 
fir,  and  may  not  be  a  separate  species.  Sudworth  was  unable  to  distinguish  its 
foliage  and  cones  from  those  of  alpine  fir,  but  the  bark  is  softer.  Its  range  is  on  the 
San  Francisco  mountains  in  Arizona.  It  is  very  scarce,  and  only  local  use  of  its  wood 
is  possible. 


NOBLE  FIR 


NOBLE  FIR 

(Abies  Nobilis) 

THIS  tree's  name  is  justified  by  its  appearance  when  growing  at  its 
best  in  the  forests  of  the  northwest  Pacific  coast.  It  is  tall, 
shapely,  and  imposing.  It  often  exceeds  a  height  of  250  feet,  and  a 
trunk  diameter  of  six  feet.  It  is  sometimes  eight  feet  in  diameter.  No 
tree  is  more  shapely  and  symmetrical.  When  grown  in  dense  stands  the 
first  limb  may  be  150  feet  from  the  ground,  and  from  that  point  to  the 
base  there  is  little  taper.  It  over-reaches  so  many  of  its  forest  com- 
panions that  it  is  sometimes  designated  locally  as  bigtree;  but  it  is 
believed  that  lumber  is  never  so  spoken  of,  and  that  the  name  applies 
to  the  standing  tree  only.  The  Indians  of  the  region  where  it  grows  call 
it  tuck-tuck,  but  information  as  to  the  meaning  of  these  words  is  not  at 
hand.  In  northern  California,  and  probably  still  farther  north,  this 
species  is  often  called  red  fir,  feather-cone  red  fir,  or  bracted  red  fir.  The 
color  of  the  heartwood  and  the  appearance  of  the  cone,  doubtless  are 
responsible  for  these  names.  There  is  a  tendency  in  the  fir-growing 
regions  of  the  West  to  call  all  firs  either  white  or  red,  depending  upon 
the  color  of  the  heartwood.  There  are  ten  or  more  species  of  fir  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  the  layman  they  all  look  much  alike, 
but  to  botanists  they  are  interesting  objects  of  study. 

The  range  of  noble  fir  covers  parts  of  three  states,  but  the  whole 
of  no  one.  Its  northern  limit  is  in  Washington,  its  southern  in  northern 
California,  and  it  follows  the  mountains  across  western  Oregon.  It 
often  forms  extensive  forests  on  the  Cascade  mountains  of  Washington. 
It  is  most  abundant  at  elevations  of  from  2,500  to  5,000  feet  in  south- 
western Washington  and  northwestern  Oregon.  On  the  eastern  and 
northern  slopes  of  those  mountains  it  is  of  smaller  size  and  is  less  abun- 
dant. Like  several  other  of  the  extraordinarily  large  western  trees,  it 
keeps  pretty  close  to  the  warm,  moist  coast  of  the  Pacific. 

The  shining,  blue-green  color  of  the  leaves  is  a  conspicuous  char- 
acteristic of  noble  fir  as  it  appears  in  the  forest.  They  vary  in  length 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half.  They  usually  curl,  twist,  and  turn 
their  points  upward  and  backward,  away  from  the  end  of  the  branch 
which  bears  them.  The  cones,  following  the  fashion  of  firs,  stand 
upright  on  the  twigs,  and  are  conspicuous  objects.  They  are  four  or 
five  inches  in  length,  which  is  rather  large  for  firs,  but  not  the  largest. 
The  seeds  are  half  an  inch  long,  and  are  winged.  They  are  well  provided 
with  the  means  of  flight,  but  many  of  them  never  have  an  opportunity 
to  test  their  wings,  for  the  dextrous  Douglas  squirrel  cuts  the  cones  from 

157 


158  American  Forest  Trees 

the  highest  trees,  and  when  they  fall  to  the  ground  he  pulls  them  apart 
with  his  feet  and  teeth,  and  the  seeds  pay  him  for  his  pains.  If  cones 
ripen  on  the  trees  and  the  released  seeds  sail  away,  there  are  birds  of 
various  feather  waiting  to  receive  them.  Consequently,  the  noble  fir 
plants  comparatively  few  seeds.  Their  ratio  of  fertility  is  low  at  best, 
but  that  is  partly  compensated  for  by  the  large  numbers  produced. 

Thick  stands  of  noble  fir  are  not  common.  It  generally  is  found,  a 
few  trees  here  and  there,  mixed  with  other  species.  Sawmills  find  it 
unprofitable  to  keep  the  lumber  separate  from  other  kinds.  It  does  not 
pay  to  do  so  for  two  reasons.  Extra  labor  is  required  to  handle  it  in 
that  way,  and  there  is  a  prejudice  against  fir  lumber.  It  does  not  appeal 
to  buyers.  For  that  reason  some  operators  have  called  this  timber 
Oregon  larch,  and  have  sent  it  to  market  under  that  name.  That  is  a 
trick  of  the  trade  which  has  been  put  into  practice  many  times  and  with 
many  woods.  The  purpose  in  the  instance  of  noble  fir  was  to  pass  it  for 
the  larch  which  grows  in  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The 
two  woods  are  so  different  that  no  person  acquainted  with  one  would 
mistake  it  for  the  other.  A  recent  government  report  of  woods  used  for 
manufacturing  purposes  in  Washington  does  not  list  a  foot  of  noble  fir. 
The  inference  is  that  it  must  be  going  to  factories  under  some  other  name, 
for  it  is  incredible  that  this  wood  should  be  put  to  no  use  at  all  in  the 
region  of  its  best  development. 

Noble  fir  is  of  slow  growth,  and  the  large  trunks  are  very  old,  the 
oldest  not  less  than  800  years.  The  summerwood  forms  a  narrow,  dark 
band  in  the  annual  ring.  Medullary  rays  are  numerous,  but  very  thin 
and  inconspicuous.  The  wood  possesses  little  figure.  It  weighs  twenty- 
eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  foxu-  pounds  less  than  the  average 
Douglas  fir.  It  is  very  low  in  fuel  value,  as  softwoods  usually  are  which 
have  little  resin.  Jt  i.j  very  weak,  and  it  bends  easily.  It  is  soft,  easily 
worked,  and  polishes  well.  This  is  one  of  its  most  valuable  qualities. 
It  is  deficient  in  a  number  of  properties  which  are  desirable  in  wood,  but 
partly  makes  up  for  them  in  its  ability  to  take  a  smooth  finish.  It  is 
pale  brown,  streaked  with  red,  the  sapwood  darker.  In  that  particular 
it  is  unusual,  for  most  softwoods  have  sap  lighter  in  color  than  the  heart. 

It  has  been  already  pointed  out  that  difficulty  is  met  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  list  the  uses  of  noble  fir,  because  it  loses  its  name 
before  it  leaves  the  sawmill  yard  and  takes  the  name  of  some  other 
wood,  and  those  who  put  it  to  use  often  do  so  without  knowing  what  the 
wood  really  is.  It  is  known  that  some  of  it  is  manufactured  into 
house  siding.  It  works  nicely  and  looks  well,  but  since  it  is  liable  to 
quick  decay  it  must  be  kept  well  painted  when  it  is  exposed  to  weather. 
It  serves  as  interior  finish,  and  this  seems  to  be  one  of  its  best  uses.     It  is 


AwERiCANf  Forest  Trees  159 

so  employed  for  steamboats  and  for  houses,  and  many  shipments  of  it 
have  been  made  to  boat  builders  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  is  used  for 
shipping  boxes,  and  its  light  color  fits  it  for  that  purpose,  as  the  wood 
shows  painting  and  stenciling  to  good  advantage. 

Em-opean  nm-series  have  propagated  noble  fir  with  success,  but  it 
does  not  do  so  well  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  though  it 
lives  through  winters  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts.  It  is  not  known 
to  have  been  planted  for  other  than  ornamental  purposes.  Unless  it 
would  grow  much  faster  in  plantations  than  in  its  wild  state,  it  will  be 
too  long  in  maturing  to  make  it  attractive  to  the  timber  planter. 

White  Fir  {Abies  concolor).  The  whiteness  of  the  wood  and  the  silver  color  of 
the  young  branches  give  this  species  its  name,  but  it  is  not  the  sole  possessor  of  that 
name,  but  shares  it  with  three  other  firs.  In  California,  Idaho,  and  Utah  it  is 
called  balsam  fir.  The  branches  and  upper  parts  of  the  trunk  where  the  bark  is  thin, 
are  covered  with  blisters  which  contain  white  resin.  In  Utah  it  is  known  as  white 
balsam,  as  silver  fir  in  some  parts  of  California,  and  as  black  gum  in  Utah.  The  reason 
for  that  name  is  not  apparent,  unless  it  refers  to  the  black  bark  on  old  trees.  It  has 
several  other  names  which  are  combinations  of  white  and  silver  with  some  other  term. 
Its  range  is  mostly  in  the  Sierras  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges,  extending 
from  southern  Colorado  to  the  mountains  of  California,  north  through  Oregon,  and 
south  through  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  The  immense  proportions  are  reached  only 
in  the  Sierra  growth,  those  trees  in  the  Rockies  being  hardly  above  ordinary  size.  In 
its  free  growth  the  tree  is  reputed  to  be  the  only  one  of  its  genus  found  in  the  arid 
regions  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  similar  localities  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  It  is 
not  distinguished  by  all  botanists  from  the  similar  species,  Abies  grandis. 

White  fir  attains  a  height  of  250  feet  and  a  diameter  of  six  in  some  instances, 
but  the  average  size  of  mature  trees  among  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  150  feet  tall  and 
three  or  four  in  diameter.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  the  tree  is  smaller.  It 
grows  from  3,000  to  9,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  leaves  are  long  for  the  fir  genus, 
and  vary  from  two  to  three  inches.  The  tree's  bark  is  black  near  the  base  of  large 
trunks  but  of  less  somber  color  near  the  top.  Near  the  base  of  large  trees  the  bark  is 
sometimes  six  inches  thick.  The  wood  of  this  species  is  light  and  soft.  Carpenters 
consider  it  coarse  grained,  by  which  they  mean  that  it  does  not  polish  nicely.  It  is 
brittle  and  weak.  The  rings  of  annual  growth  are  generally  broad,  with  the  bands 
of  darker  colored  summerwood  prominent.  In  lumber  sawed  tangentially,  rings 
produces  distinct  figure,  but  it  is  not  generally  regarded  as  pleasing.  The  medullary 
rays  are  prominent  for  a  softwood,  but  quarter-sawing  does  not  add  much  to  the 
wood's  appearance.  It  decays  quickly  in  alternate  wet  and  dry  situations.  Trees 
are  apt  to  be  affected  with  wind  shake,  and  the  wood's  disposition  to  splinter  in 
course  of  manufacture  has  prejudiced  many  users  against  it.  However,  it  has  some 
good  qualities.  The  wood  is  free  from  objectionable  odor,  and  this  quahfies  it  as  box 
material.  Fruit  shippers  can  use  it  without  fear  of  contaminating  their  wares.  It  is 
light  in  color,  and  stenciling  looks  well  on  it.     Its  weight  is  likewise  in  its  favor. 

Trees  of  this  species  seldom  occur  in  pure  stands  of  large  extent,  but  are 
scattered  among  forests  of  other  kinds.  Sawmills  cut  the  fir  as  they  come  to  it,  but 
seldom  go  much  out  of  their  way  to  get  it.  The  United  States  census  for  1910 
showed  that  132,327,000  feet  of  white  fir  lumber  were  cut  in  the  whole  country,  but  as 
several  species  pass  by  that  name  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  how  much  belonged 


160  American  Forest  Trees 

to  the  one  under  discussion,  but  probably  about  half,  as  that  much  was  credited  to 
California  where  this  tree  is  at  its  best.  The  fir  does  not  suffer  in  comparison  with 
trees  associated  with  it.  Its  trunk  does  not  average  quite  as  large  as  the  pines,  yet 
larger  than  most  of  the  cedars;  but  in  height  it  equals  the  best  of  its  associates,  and  in 
symmetrical  form,  and  beauty  of  color  of  foliage,  it  must  be  acknowledged  superior. 
The  dark  intensity  of  its  green  crown  when  thrown  against  the  blue  summer  skies  of 
the  Sierras  forms  a  picture  which  probably  no  tree  in  the  world  can  surpass  and  few 
can  equal.  Its  cones  suffer  from  the  depredations  of  the  ever-hungry  Douglas 
squirrel  which  is  too  impatient  to  wait  for  nature's  slow  process  to  ripen  and  scatter 
the  seeds;  but  he  climbs  the  trunks  which  stand  as  straight  as  plummet  lines  two 
hundred  feet  or  more,  and  cUnging  to  the  topmost  swaying  branches,  clips  the  cone 
stems  with  his  teeth,  and  the  cone  goes  to  the  ground  like  a  shot.  A  person  who  will 
stand  still  in  a  Sierra  forest  m  Ir  te  summer,  where  firs  abound,  will  presently  hear  the 
cones  thumping  the  ground  on  all  sides  of  him.  If  his  eyes  are  good,  and  he  looks 
carefully,  he  may  see  the  squirrels,  silhouetted  against  the  sky  on  far-away  tree  tops, 
seeming  so  small  in  the  distance  that  they  look  the  size  of  mice;  yet  the  Douglas 
squirrel  is  about  the  size  of  the  eastern  red  squirrel.  He  does  not  always  let  the  cones 
fall  when  he  cuts  their  stems,  but  sometimes  carries  them  down  the  long  trunk  to  the 
ground,  then  goes  back  for  another.  The  squirrel  hoards  the  cones  for  winter,  but 
does  not  neglect  to  fully  satisfy  his  appetite  while  about  the  work.  A  single  hoard — 
carefully  covered  with  pine  needles  as  a  roof  against  winter  snow — may  contain  five 
or  ten  bushels  of  cones,  which  are  not  all  fir  cones,  but  these  predominate  in  most 


GRAND  FIR 


Grand  Fir 

GRAND  FIR 

(Abies  Grandis) 

IN  California,  Oregon,  and  Idaho  this  tree  is  called  white  fir,  but  it  has 
several  other  names,  silver  fir  and  yellow  fir  in  Montana  and  Idaho. 
In  California  some  know  it  as  Oregon  fir,  western  white  fir,  and  great 
California  fir.  Grand  fir  is  more  a  botanist's  than  a  lumberman's  name. 
The  range  extends  from  British  Columbia  to  Mendocino  coimty, 
California,  and  to  the  western  slopes  of  the  continental  divide  in  Mon- 
tana. The  coastal  growth  lies  in  a  comparatively  narrow  strip.  In  the 
mountains  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet  is  sometimes  reached,  the  soil  and 
moisture  requirements,  however,  being  the  same.  The  largest  trees  are 
found  in  bottom  lands  near  the  coast  where  trunks  300  feet  tall  and  six 
feet  in  diameter  are  found,  but  the  average  is  much  less.  In  mountain 
regions  at  considerable  altitudes  a  height  of  100  feet  and  a  diameter  of 
two  or  three  is  an  average  size.  The  leaves  are  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length,  occasionally  two  and  a  half.  They  are  arranged  in  rows 
along  the  sides  of  the  long,  flexible  branches.  Cones  are  from  two  to 
four  inches  long,  and  bear  winged  seeds  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  the 
wings  being  half  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  The  bark  of  old  trunks  may 
be  two  inches  thick,  but  generally  is  thinner.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the 
wood  of  the  large  western  firs  lacks  so  many  qualities  which  make  it 
valuable.  It  is  generally  inferior  to  the  woods  of  Douglas  fir,  western 
hemlock,  Sitka  spruce  and  the  western  cedars,  sugar  pine,  and  western 
yellow  pine.  The  wood  of  grand  fir  is  light,  soft,  weak,  brittle,  and  not 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Its  light  color  and  the  abundance  of 
clear  material  in  the  giant  trunks  are  redeeming  features.  These  ought 
to  open  the  way  for  much  use  in  the  future.  It  cannot  find  place  in 
heavy  construction,  because  it  is  not  strong  enough.  That  shuts  it  from 
one  important  place  for  which  it  is  otherwise  fitted.  Box  makers  find 
it  suitable,  as  all  fir  woods  are,  and  large  demand  should  come  from  that 
quarter.  Trunks  that  will  cut  from  15,000  to  20,000  feet  of  lumber 
that  is  practically  clear,  and  of  good  color,  and  light  in  weight,  are 
bound  to  have  value  for  boxes  and  slack  cooperage.  Trees  grow  with 
fair  rapidity.  Aimual  rings  are  usually  broad,  and  the  bands  of  summer- 
wood  are  wide  and  distinct.  This  guarantees  a  certain  figxure  in  lumber 
sawed  tangentially,  but  it  is  not  a  figure  to  compare  in  beauty  with  some 
of  the  hardwoods,  or  even  with  Douglas  fir,  or  the  southern  yellow  pines. 
It  ought  to  be  a  first  class  material  for  certain  kinds  of  woodenware, 
particularly  for  tubs,  pails,  and  small  stave  vessels,  and  as  far  as  it  has 
been  used  in  that  way  it  has  been  satisfactory.     It  cannot  be  recom- 


164  American  Forest  Trees 

mended  for  outside  house  finish,  such  as  weather-boarding,  cornice,  and 
porch  work,  because  of  its  susceptibihty  to  decay ;  but  it  meets  require- 
ments for  plain  interior  finish,  and  tests  have  shown  it  to  be  good 
material  for  cores  or  backing  over  which  to  glue  veneers  of  hardwood. 

While  the  eastern  states  have.not  yet  wakened  up  to  the  fact  that 
this  tree  is  of  value  in  ornamental  planting,  its  decorative  qualities  in 
open  stands  have  been  recognized  for  some  time  in  eastern  Europe,  where 
trees  of  considerable  size,  promising  to  attain  almost  primeval  propor- 
tions, are  already  flourishing. 

Red  Fir  (Abies  magnifica)  is  the  largest  fir  in  America.  At  its  best 
it  attains  a  height  of  250  feet  and  a  diameter  of  ten,  but  that  size  is  rare. 
It  has  several  names,  magnificent  fir,  which  is  a  translation  of  its  botan- 
ical name ;  redbark  fir,  California  red  fir,  and  golden  fir.  The  reference 
to  red  which  occurs  in  its  several  names,  is  descriptive  of  its  heartwood. 
Its  range  lies  on  the  Cascade  mountains  of  southern  Oregon,  and  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  in  California. 
It  is  common  in  southern  Oregon  and  sometimes  forms  nearly  pure 
forests  at  elevations  of  5,000  or  7,000  feet.  It  is  plentiful  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  ranges  at  altitudes  of  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet.  In  southern 
California  it  ascends  10,000  feet.  On  old  trees  the  limbs,  regularly 
whorled  in  collars  of  five,  are  usually  pendulous  or  down-growing  and  are 
regularly  and  precisely  subdivided  into  branches  and  twigs,  the  short, 
stiff  blue-green  leaves,  which  persist  for  ten  years,  closely  covering  the 
upper  side  of  the  latter.  Its  cones  are  the  largest  of  the  firs,  are  dark 
purple  in  color  and  grow  erect  on  the  branches. 

The  cones  are  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  three  or  four  in  diameter. 
They  present  a  fine  appearance  as  they  stand  erect  on  the  branches.  The 
seeds  are  large,  but  their  strong  wings  are  able  to  carry  them  away  from 
the  immediate  presence  of  the  parent  tree.  The  wings  are  extremely 
beautiful,  and  flash  light  with  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  Old  trees  are 
protected  by  hard,  dark-colored  bark  five  or  six  inches  thick.  A  forest 
fire  may  pass  through  a  stand  of  old  firs  without  burning  through  the 
bark,  but  young  trees  are  not  so  protected,  and  are  liable  to  be  killed. 

A  study  of  the  wood  of  the  red  fir  reveals  rather  more  favorable 
qualities  than  the  other  firs  afi'ord.  Sap  and  heartwood  are  more  easily 
distinguished  than  in  the  other  species,  the  sapwood  being  much  lighter 
in  color  than  the  reddish  heart.  Contrary  to  the  general  rule  among  the 
firs,  this  wood  possesses  considerable  durability,  especially  when  used 
for  purposes  which  bring  it  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  is,  however,  light, 
soft  and  weak,  but  has  a  close,  fine  grain  and  compact  structirre.  Season- 
ing defects,  such  as  checking  and  warping,  are  liable  to  occur  unless 
properly  guarded  against.     It  weighs  29.30  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  or 


American  Forest  Trees  165 

nearly  three  pounds  less  than  Douglas  fir.  It  is  used  for  rough  lumber, 
packing  boxes,  bridge  floors,  interior  house  finish,  and  fuel. 

Shasta  Red  Fir  {Abies  magnifica  shastensis)  is  pronounced  by 
George  B.  Sudworth  to  be  only  a  form  of  red  fir  {Abies  magnifica)  and  not 
a  separate  species.  The  principal  difference  is  in  the  cones.  The  Shasta 
form  was  discovered  on  the  mountain  of  that  name  in  northern  Cali- 
fornia in  1890  by  Professor  J.  G.  Lemmon.  It  was  supposed  to  be 
confined  to  that  locality,  but  was  subsequently  found  on  the  Cascade 
mountains  in  Oregon,  and  also  at  several  points  in  northern  California. 
It  was  later  found  in  the  Sierras  five  hundred  miles  south  of  Mount 
Shasta. 

Lovely  Fir  {Abies  amabilis)  is  known  by  a  number  of  names,  red  fir,  silver  fir, 
red  silver  fir,  lovely  red  fir,  amabilis  fir,  and  larch.  The  last  name  is  applied  to  this 
tree  by  lumbermen  who  have  discovered  that  fir  lumber  sells  better  if  it  is  given  some 
other  name.  The  range  of  this  species  e.xtends  from  British  Columbia  southward  in 
the  Cascade  mountains  through  Washington  to  Oregon.  It  is  the  common  fir  of  the 
Olympic  mountains  and  there  reaches  its  best  development,  sometimes  a  height  of 
250  feet  and  a  diameter  of  five  or  six ;  but  the  average,  even  in  the  best  part  of  its 
range,  is  much  under  that  size,  while  in  the  northern  country,  and  high  on  mountains, 
it  is  a  commonplace  tree,  averaging  less  than  100  feet  high,  and  scarcely  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter.  When  this  fir  stands  in  open  ground,  the  whole  trunk  is  covered 
with  limbs  from  base  to  top;  but  in  dense  stands,  the  limbs  drop  off,  and  a  clean  trunk 
results. 

Some  of  the  largest  trees  rise  with  scarcely  a  limb  150  feet,  and  above  that  is  the 
small  crown.  The  bark  of  young  trees  is  covered  with  blisters  filled  with  resin.  The 
bark  is  thin  and  smooth  until  the  tree  is  a  century  or  more  old,  after  which  it  becomes 
rougher,  and  near  the  base  may  be  two  and  a  half  inches  thick.  It  is  of  very  slow 
growth,  and  a  century  hardly  produces  a  trunk  of  small  sawlog  size.  The  leaves  are 
dark  green  above,  and  whitish  below.  They  are  much  crowded  on  the  twigs,  those 
on  the  underside  rising  with  a  twist  at  the  base,  and  standing  nearly  erect.  They  are 
longer  than  those  on  the  twig's  upper  side.  The  purple  cones  are  conspicuous  objects 
on  the  tree,  are  from  three  and  a  half  to  six  inches  long,  and  bear  abundance  of  seeds 
which  are  well  dispersed  by  wind.  However,  the  reproduction  of  this  tree  is  not 
plentiful.  The  species  holds  its  own,  and  not  much  more.  When  artificial  reforesta- 
tion takes  place  in  this  country,  if  that  time  ever  comes,  lovely  fir  will  receive  scant 
consideration,  because  of  its  discouragingly  slow  growth.  It  ranks  with  lodgepole 
pine  in  that  respect.  Nature  can  afford  to  wait  two  hundred  years  for  a  forest  to 
mature,  but  men  will  not  plant  and  protect  when  the  prospect  of  returns  is  so  remote. 
The  wood  is  light,  weak,  moderately  stiff  and  hard.  The  heartwood  is  pale  brown, 
the  sap  nearly  white.  The  summerwood  appears  in  thin  but  well-marked  bands  in 
the  annual  rings,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  large  enough  to  show  slightly  in  quarter- 
sawed  lumber.  Growing  as  it  does,  interspersed  with  really  valuable  woods,  the 
lovely  fir  is  not  highly  thought  of  from  a  commercial  standpoint.  However,  it  is 
exploited  in  conjunction  with  the  other  species  and  turned  into  lumber  and  general 
structural  material.  A  considerable  quantity  finds  a  market  as  interior  finish  and 
other  millwork.  It  has  many  of  the  properties  which  fit  it  for  the  manufacture  of 
packing  boxes,  particularly  those  intended  for  dried  fruit  and  light  merchandise.  It 
bears  considerable  resemblance  to  spruce.     The  utilization  of  this  and  similar  species 


166  American  Forest  Trees 

of  western  fir  for  pulp  has  been  suggested,  but  little  has  been  done.  It  has  been 
planted  ornameDtally  in  parts  of  Europe,  but  there  is  no  comparison  between  the 
decorative  appearance  of  this  fir  and  its  associated  species,  the  others  which  are  in 
cultivation  being  much  superior.  Removal  from  the  old  habitat  militates  greatly 
against  its  natural  beauty  and  reduces  it  to  the  level  of  the  ordinary. 

Alpine  Fir  {Abies  lasiocarpa)  is  so  called  because  it  thrives  on  high  mountains 
and  in  the  far  North.  It  grows  in  southern  Alaska,  up  to  latitude  60°,  and  southward 
to  Oregon  and  Colorado.  Its  other  names  are  balsam,  white  balsam,  Oregon  balsam, 
mountain  balsam,  white  fir,  pumpkin  tree,  down-cone,  and  downy-cone  subalpine  fir. 
It  grows  from  sea  level  in  Alaska  up  to  7,000  feet  or  more  in  the  South.  It  is  not 
abundant,  and  not  very  well  known.  However,  its  slender,  spirelike  top  distin- 
guishes it  from  all  associates  and  it  may  be  recognized  at  long  distances  by  that 
characteristic.  It  endures  cold  at  40  degrees  below  zero,  and  summer  climate  at  90 
degrees.  Trees  are  usually  small,  and  the  trunks  are  covered  with  limbs  to  the 
ground.  On  high  mountains  the  lower  limbs  often  lie  flat  on  the  ground,  and  the 
twigs  sometimes  take  root.  Under  very  favorable  circumstances  this  fir  may  reach 
a  height  of  160  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four,  but  the  usual  size  is  less  than  half  of  it, 
even  when  conditions  are  fair,  while  on  bleak  mountains  mature  trees  may  be  only 
three  or  four  feet  high,  with  most  of  the  limbs  prostrate.  The  sprawling  form  of 
growth  makes  the  tree  peculiarly  liable  to  be  killed  by  fire.  The  bark  is  thin, 
smooth,  and  flinty ;  and  in  color  it  is  ashy  gray  or  chalky  white.  Leaves  are  one  and  a 
half  inches  or  less  long;  the  purple  cones  from  two  to  four  inches.  Trees  bear  cones  at 
about  twelve  years  of  age.  The  seeds  are  equipped  with  violet  or  purplish  wings, 
and  they  fly  far  enough  to  find  the  best  available  places  to  plant  themselves.  The 
wood  is  narrow-ringed,  light,  soft,  and  in  color  from  pale  straw  to  light  yellowish- 
brown.  It  is  fairly  straight  grained,  and  splits  and  works  easily;  but  trunks  are  very 
knotty.  Its  best  service  in  the  past  has  consisted  in  supplying  fuel  to  mining  camps 
and  mountain  stock  ranges. 


# 


DOUGLAS  FIR 


DOUGLAS  FIR 

(Pseudoisuga  Taxifolia) 

DURING  one  hundred  and  ten  years,  from  1803  until  the  present 
time,  botanists  and  others  have  proposed  and  rejected  names  for 
this  tree.  It  has  been  called  a  fir,  pine,  and  spruce,  with  various  combi- 
nations, but  the  name  now  seems  to  be  fixed.  Laymen  have  disputed 
almost  as  much  as  botanists  as  to  what  the  tree  should  be  named.  It 
has  been  called  red  fir,  Douglas  spruce,  Douglas  fir,  yellow  fir,  spruce,  fir, 
pine,  red  pine,  Puget  Sound  pine,  Oregon  pine,  cork-barked  Douglas 
spruce,  and  Douglas  tree.  More  than  a  dozen  varieties  are  distinguished 
in  cultivation. 

The  range  of  Douglas  fir  covers  most  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
in  the  United  States  and  northward  to  central  British  Columbia ;  on  the 
coast  from  the  latitude  of  southern  Alaska  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains in  central  California.  It  reaches  its  maximum  development  in 
western  Washington  and  Oregon,  particularly  between  the  Cascade 
mountains  and  the  Pacific  ocean.  In  these  Cascade  forests,  stands  are 
found  which  yield  from  50,000  to  100,000  feet  per  acre,  and  mills  in  that 
region  cut  the  longest  timbers  in  the  world,  some  two  feet  square  and  100 
feet  long. 

Two  forms  of  Douglas  fir  are  recognized  by  botanists,  not  essen- 
tially different  except  in  size  and  habit  of  growth.  One  is  the  finely 
developed  form  on  the  Pacific  coast  where  the  climate  is  warm  and  the 
air  moist.  The  other  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  form  which  is  smaller  and 
shows  the  effect  of  cold,  dryness,  and  other  adverse  circumstances. 
When  the  seeds  of  the  two  forms  are  planted  in  nurseries,  where  they 
enjoy  identical  advantages,  the  coast  form  outgrows  the  other  in  Europe, 
but  the  Rocky  Mountain  form  thrives  best  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States. 

Douglas  fir  needles  are  from  three-quarters  to  one  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  and  of  a  dark,  yellow-green  color.  They  remain  on  the 
twigs  about  eight  years.  Coner  are  from  two  to  fom"  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  are  borne  on  long  stems.  The  seeds,  which  ripen  in  August,  are 
of  light,  reddish-brown  color  with  irregular  white  spots  on  the  lower  side ; 
are  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  are  provided  with  wings.  Trees 
of  this  species  in  the  moist  climate  of  the  Pacific  slope  average  much 
larger  than  those  in  the  mountains  farther  east.  The  largest  are  300 
feet  high,  occasionally  more,  and  from  eight  to  ten  in  diameter.  The 
average  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  from  eighty  to  100  feet  high, 
and  two  to  four  in  diameter.     Young  trees  are  slender  with  crowded 

169 


170  American  Forest  Trees 

branches.  In  thick  stands  the  lower  limbs  die  and  the  trunks  remain 
bare,  except  an  occasional  small  branch.  Douglas  fir  at  its  best  grows 
in  thick  stands,  with  crowns  forming  a  canopy  so  dense  that  sunlight  can 
scarcely  reach  the  ground.  The  result  of  this  is  that  other  species  have 
little  show  where  Douglas  fir  prevails. 

The  bark  of  large  trunks  attains  a  thickness  of  eight  or  ten  inches 
near  the  base.  Young  bark  contains  blisters  filled  with  resin,  similar  to 
those  of  balsam  and  other  species  of  fir. 

The  wood  is  light  red  or  yellow,  the  sap  much  whiter.  Lumbermen 
recognize  two  kinds  of  wood,  yellow  and  red.  The  former  is  considered 
more  valuable.  Both  may  come  from  the  same  trunk,  and  the  reason  for 
the  difference  in  color  and  quality  is  not  well  understood.  It  caimot  be 
attributed  to  soil  or  climate,  or  to  the  age  of  the  tree,  and  it  does  not 
seem  to  depend  upon  rate  of  growth.  The  bands  of  summerwood  are 
broad  and  quite  distinct.  A  few  scattered  resin  ducts  are  visible  under 
a  magnifying  glass  of  low  power.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous, 
rather  large,  frequently  yellow,  conspicuous  when  wood  is  split  radially. 
The  wood's  average  weight  is  given  by  Sargent  at  32. 14  pounds  per  cubic 
foot,  yet  some  specimens  exceed  forty  pounds.  It  is  hard,  strong, and  stiff. 
In  mechanical  properties  it  rates  about  the  same  as  longleaf  pine  of  the 
South.  Elaborate  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  which  of  these 
woods  is  the  better  for  heavy  construction,  and  neither  appears  to  win 
over  the  other.  In  one  respect,  however,  Douglas  fir  has  a  clear  ad- 
vantage over  its  southern  rival:  it  may  be  had  in  much  larger  pieces. 
No  other  commercial  wood  of  the  world  equals  it  in  that  particular.  The 
Douglas  fir  flagstaff  at  the  Kew  gardens  in  England  was  159  feet  long, 
eight  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top, more  than  three  feet  at  the  base.  The 
extraordinary  size  of  squared  beams  cut  from  this  species  has  led  to 
great  demand  for  it  for  heavy  construction  in  Europe  and  this  country. 
The  pines  from  the  Baltic  sea  region  of  northern  Europe,  which  held 
undisputed  place  in  heavy  work  during  centuries,  has  now  yielded  that 
place  to  Douglas  fir  and  longleaf  pine. 

No  other  single  species  in  the  United  States  or  in  the  world  equals 
the  annual  sawmill  cut  of  Douglas  fir.  The  four  species  of  southern 
yellow  pines,  if  counted  as  one,  surpass  it;  but  singly,  not  one  comes  up 
to  it.  In  1910  the  lumber  cut  from  this  fir  amounted  to  5,203,644,000 
feet,  which  exceeded  one-eighth  of  the  total  lumber  cut  in  the  United 
States.  The  importance  of  such  a  timber  tree  can  scarcely  be  estimated. 
The  available  supply  in  the  western  forests  is  very  large  and  will  last 
many  years,  even  if  the  demand  for  more  than  5,000,000,000  feet  a 
year  continues  to  be  met. 

The  timber  is  exported  to  practically  every  civilized  nation  in  the 


American  Forest  Trees  171 

world.  Shipbuilding  creates  a  heavy  demand.  Some  of  the  leading 
European  nations  use  it  as  deck  lining  for  battleships,  and  except 
mahogany  and  teak,  it  is  said  to  have  no  equal  for  that  purpose.  Its 
cheapness  gives  it  a  decided  advantage  over  those  woods. 

Every  important  lumber  market  in  the  United  States  handles 
Douglas  fir,  and  its  uses  are  so  many  that  it  would  be  easier  to  list 
industries  which  do  not  use  it  than  those  which  do.  It  is  manufactured 
into  more  than  fifty  classes  of  commodities,  in  Illinois  alone.  Among 
these  are  boats,  railroad  cars,  electrical  apparatus,  farm  machinery, 
laundry  supplies,  ladders,  refrigerators,  musical  instruments,  fixtures 
for  offices,  stores,  and  banks,  and  sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  This  list  of 
uses  shows  that  its  place  in  the  country's  industries  includes  much  more 
than  rough  construction.  It  may  be  stained  in  imitation  of  valuable 
foreign  and  domestic  woods,  including  walnut,  mahogany,  and  oak. 
The  natural  grain  and  figiore  of  the  wood  may  be  deepened  and  improved 
by  stains,  and  this  is  much  done  by  manufacturers  of  interior  finish, 
panels,  and  store  and  office  fixtirres.  There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the 
size  of  panels  which  may  be  cut  in  single  pieces.  It  is  easy  to  procure 
planks  large  enough  for  whole  counter  tops. 

The  best  grain  of  Douglas  fir  is  not  brought  out  by  quarter-sawing. 
The  figures  desired  are  not  those  produced  by  the  medullary  rays,  but 
by  the  rings  of  annual  growth.  Therefore,  the  sawyer  at  the  mill  cuts 
his  best  logs — if  intended  for  figmed  lumber — tangentially,  as  far  as 
possible.  In  the  state  of  Washington,  which  leads  all  other  states  in  the 
production  of  Douglas  fir,  its  chief  use  as  a  manufactured  product  is  for 
doors,  sash,  and  blinds,  and  the  annual  consumption  in  that  industry 
exceeds  50,000,000  feet.  It  is  cut  in  veneers,  and  it  is  likewise  used  as 
corewood  to  back  veneers.  Crossarms  for  telegraph  and  telephone 
poles  demand  35,000,000  feet  yearly  in  Washington  alone,  and  many 
thousands  of  poles  are  of  this  wood.  It  is  third  among  the  crosstie 
woods  of  the  United  States,  the  combined  cut  of  oaks  standing  first,  and 
the  pine  second.  It  is  rapidly  taking  high  position  as  material  for 
large  water  pipes  and  for  braces,  props,  stulls,  and  lagging  in  mines 
and  for  paving  blocks  for  streets. 

BristlEconE  Fir  {Abies  venusia)  is  pronounced  by  George  B.  Sudworth  to  be 
"the  most  curious  fir  tree  in  the  world."  It  is  found  almost  exclusively  in  Monterey 
county,  California,  but  a  few  trees  grow  outside  of  that  circumscribed  area.  It  has 
been  called  Santa  Lucia  fir,  because  it  was  once  supposed  to  exist  only  in  canyons  of 
Santa  Lucia  mountains,  but  its  range  is  now  known  to  be  more  extensive.  Monterey 
county,  California,  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  dendrologists.  Three  species  of  trees  are 
either  confined  to  that  area,  or  have  their  best  development  there.  They  are 
Monterey  cypress  {Cupressus  ^nacrocorpa),  Monterey  pine  {Pinus  radiata),  and  bristle- 
cone  fir.     All  are  peculiar  trees:  the  cypress  because  of  its  ragged  form  and  ex- 


172  American  Forest  Trees 

tremely  limited  range,  the  pine  because  of  its  exceedingly  rapid  growth  when  given  a 
chance,  and  the  fir,  because  of  its  peculiar  form  of  crown,  odd  appearance  of  cone,  and 
extraordinary  weight  of  wood.  No  reason  is  apparent  why  that  particular  point  on 
the  California  coast  should  have  brought  into  existence — or  at  least  should  have 
gathered  to  itself — three  peculiar  tree  species.  Bristlecone  fir  is  well  named  from  the 
bristles  an  inch  long  covering  the  cone.  The  leaves,  too,  are  peculiar,  bearing  much 
resemblance  to  small  willow  leaves.  Their  upper  sides  are  deep  yellow-green  and  the 
under  sides  silvery.  The  largest  leaves  are  two  inches  long,  cones  three  inches. 
They  ripen  in  August,  and  soon  afterwards  scatter  their  seeds.  The  tree  is  not  a 
prolific  seeder,  and  it  is  believed  that  its  range  is  becoming  smaller.  Bristlecone's 
form  of  crown  has  been  compared  to  an  Indian  club,  the  large  end  on  the  ground  and 
the  handle  pointing  upward.  Trees  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  high  have  such 
"handles"  twenty  or  thirty  feet  long.  That  peculiarity  of  shape  makes  the  tree 
recognizable  among  associated  species  at  a  distance  of  several  miles.  The  recorded 
weight  of  the  wood  is  42.27  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  nearly  twice  the  weight 
of  some  other  firs.  The  wood  is  moderately  soft,  but  very  firm.  Few  uses  for  it 
have  been  reported.  Trunks  are  very  knotty,  and  are  too  few  in  number  to  be  of 
importance  as  a  source  of  lumber.  The  tree  has  been  planted  successfully  for  orna- 
ment in  the  south  of  Europe. 

BiGCONE  Spruce  {Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa)  is  of  the  same  genus  as  Douglas  fir 
and  bears  much  resemblance  to  it,  but  is  smaller,  and  its  range  lies  wholly  outside 
that  of  its  northern  relative.  It  is  a  southern  California  species,  occupying  mountain 
slopes  and  canyons  in  Santa  Barbara  and  San  Diego  counties.  It  is  found  from  3,000 
to  5,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Trees  average  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height  and  two  or 
three  in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  approximately  of  the  same  size  as  those  of  Douglas 
fir;  but  the  cones  are  much  larger,  hence  the  name  by  which  the  tree  is  known.  It  is 
called  hemlock  as  often  as  spruce.  The  cones  are  from  four  to  seven  inches  long,  hang 
down,  and  usually  occupy  the  topmost  branches  of  trees.  The  winged  seeds  are  half 
an  inch  long.  The  bark  is  six  inches  or  less  in  thickness.  The  wood  is  inferior  in 
most  ways  to  that  of  Douglas  fir,  lighter,  weaker,  and  less  elastic.  Its  color  is  reddish 
brown.  It  has  never  contributed  much  lumber  to  the  market  and  never  will.  Its 
range  is  local  and  the  form  of  the  tree  is  not  of  the  best.  An  occasional  log  reaches  a 
sawmill,  but  the  principal  demand  is  for  fuel. 


BIGTREE 

(Sequoia  W ashingtoniana) 

BOTANISTS  have  had  a  hard  time  giving  this  tree  a  Latin  name 
which  will  meet  the  requirements  of  technical  classification,  but  an 
English  name  acceptable  everywhere  was  early  found  for  it — bigtree. 
No  fewer  than  a  dozen  names  have  been  proposed  by  botanists.  Most 
of  them  attempt  to  express  the  idea  of  vastness  or  grandeur;  but  the 
simple  English  name  comes  directly  to  the  point  and  ends  the  contro- 
versy as  far  as  the  common  name  is  concerned. 

Everything  connected  with  this  tree  is  interesting.  Geologically, 
it  is  as  old  as  the  yellow  poplar.  There  were  five  species  of  sequoias  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  in  Europe  and  America,  before  the  ice  age. 
They  grew  in  the  North,  nearly  to  the  Arctic  circle,  at  a  time  when  the 
climate  of  those  regions  was  milder  than  it  is  now.  The  later  advance  of 
the  ice  southward  overwhelmed  three  species  of  bigtrees,  and  pushed 
two  survivors  into  the  region  which  is  now  California.  These  are  the 
bigtree  and  the  redwood.  It  is  not  known  how  long  ago  it  was  that  the 
ice  sheet  did  its  destructive  work,  but  it  antedated  human  history,  and 
the  gigantic  trees  have  been  in  California  since  that  time. 

Long  after  the  ice  age  ceased  generally  in  North  America  it 
continued  among  the  high  Sierras  of  California,  and  the  bigtrees  to  this 
day  give  a  hint  of  it  in  the  peculiar  outlines  of  their  range.  They  are 
scattered  north  and  south  along  the  face  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains 
in  California,  a  distance  of  260  miles,  and  at  elevations  from  4,500  to 
8,000  feet. 

The  aggregate  of  the  total  areas  is  about  fifty  square  miles.  The 
stand  is  not  continuous,  but  consists  of  "groves,"  that  is,  isolated  stands 
with  wide  intervals  between,  where  no  trees  of  this  species  are  found. 
The  arrangement  suggests  that  the  bigtree  forest  was  cut  in  sections  by 
glaciers  which  descended  from  the  high  mountains  to  the  plains,  a  dis- 
tance of  one  hundred  miles  or  more,  crossing  the  belt  of  sequoias  at  right 
angles.  The  glaciers  withdrew  thousands  of  years  ago,  and  their  tracks 
down  the  mountain  slopes  have  long  been  covered  by  forests;  but  the 
bigtree  groves,  for  some  unknown  reason,  never  spread  into  the  inter- 
vening spaces,  but  today  are  separated  by  wide  tracts  in  which  not  a 
seedling  or  an  old  trunk  or  log  of  that  species  is  to  be  found.  This 
is  one  of  the  mysteries  which  add  interest  to  those  wonderful  trees — 
why  they  cannot  extend  their  range  beyond  the  circumscribed  limits 
which  they  occupied  thousands  of  years  ago. 

It  was  claimed  for  a  long  time  and  was  quite  generally  believed  that 


176  American  Forest  Trees 

bigtrees  were  not  reproducing,  that  there  "were  no  little  bigtrees." 
That  was  conclusively  disproved  by  Fred  G.  Plummer,  geographer  of  the 
United  States  Forest  Service,  who  made  a  scientific  study  of  a  small 
grove,  measured  the  trees,  and  actually  counted  and  classified  them. 
His  work  showed  that  there  were  in  the  area  which  he  investigated : 

Trees  containing  100,000  to  120,000  feet  each 2 

Trees  containing    80,000  to  100,000  feet  each   13 

Trees  containing    60,000  to    80,000  feet  each 49 

Trees  containing    40,000  to    60,000  feet  each   112 

Trees  containing    20,000  to    40,000  feet  each   251 

Trees  containing  less  than  20,000  feet  each 353 

"Little  bigtrees" 2,682 

Total 3,462 

Bigtree  is  distantly  related  to  southern  cypress,  and  the  shapes  of 
very  old  trees  of  both  species  bear  some  resemblance.  Bigtree  leaves 
do  not  fall  annually  as  those  of  bald  cypress  do.  They  are  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  on  the  leading  shoots  they  may 
be  half  an  inch  in  length.  Cones  are  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  they  ripen  their  seeds  the  second  year,  but  the  empty  cones 
may  adhere  to  the  branches  several  years.  The  seeds  are  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  and  have  wings  sufficient  to  carry  them  a  hundred  yards  or 
more.  The  trees  bear  abundance  of  seeds,  in  proportion  to  the  small 
number  of  branches.  Though  shapely  and  well  clothed  with  limbs 
when  young,  the  crown  contracts  with  age,  and  consists  of  a  few  enor- 
mous, crooked  limbs,  almost  destitute  of  twigs  and  small  branches. 
One  of  these  trees  may  actually  bear  more  twigs  when  the  trunk  is  only 
a  foot  in  diameter  than  will  be  on  the  same  trunk  when  it  is  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  in  diameter.  The  old  tree  trunks  are  often  without  limbs 
to  a  height  of  100  or  150  feet. 

The  Douglas  squirrel  is  the  bigtree's  greatest  enemy.  In  proportion 
to  size,  this  little  creature  probably  eats  ten  times  as  many  tree  seeds  as 
the  most  ravenous  hog  that  roams  the  forest.  One  of  the  first  things 
that  impresses  a  visitor  in  a  grove  of  bigtrees  is  the  rich  brown  of  the 
bark  of  some  of  the  trunks.  All  are  not  brown  alike,  or  at  all  seasons. 
The  trees  on  which  the  seed  harvest  is  ready  are  the  brownest,  thanks  to 
the  sharp  claws,  the  tireless  energy,  and  keen  appetite  of  the  Douglas 
squirrel.  He  goes  up  and  down  the  trunks  for  three  square  meals  a  day 
among  the  clusters  of  cone-bearing  branches  two  hundred  or  three 
hundred  feet  above,  and  makes  several  extra  trips  for  exercise:  and  at 
each  scratch  of  his  briery  foot  he  kicks  off  scales  of  bark,  until  the  whole 
trunk  is  "scratched  raw."     The  detached  scales  of  bark  accumulate  in  a 


American  Forest  Trees  177 

mound  about  the  base  of  the  tree,  where  they  have  been  so  accumulating 
for  centuries.  It  is  fortunate  that  those  old  trees  have  bark  from  one  to 
two  feet  thick.  They  can  afford  to  be  scratched  for  a  month  or  two  each 
year. 

These  are  the  heaviest  trees  in  America,  notwithstanding  their 
wood  is  light.  It  weighs  less  than  northern  white  cedar.  The  largest 
bigtree  trunks  weigh  more  than  2,000,000  pounds.  In  order  to  stand  at 
all,  they  must  stand  plumb.  It  is  a  provision  of  nature  that  the  old 
trees  are  almost  branchless,  otherwise  the  wind  would  force  them  out  of 
plumb  and  they  would  go  down.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  over- 
throw of  one  of  these  giants  is  always  brought  about  by  one  of  two 
causes.  The  development  of  larger  limbs  on  one  side  than  on  another 
unbalances  them;  or  the  wash  of  gullies  undermines  the  roots  on  one 
side,  and  draws  the  tree  that  way.  It  is  currently  believed  that  no  big- 
tree  ever  dies  from  natural  causes. 

A  good  deal  of  pure  fiction  has  been  published  regarding  the  size 
and  age  of  the  largest  of  these  trees.  They  are  old  enough  and  large 
enough  without  drawing  upon  the  imagination.  The  tree's  base  is 
greatly  enlarged,  but  tapers  rapidly  the  first  few  feet.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  some  of  the  trunks  are  over  forty  feet  in  diameter,  one  foot 
above  ground,  but  that  is  not  a  fair  measurement.  The  point 
should  be  five  or  six  feet  at  least.  Measured  thus,  about  twenty-five 
feet  inside  the  bark  would  represent  the  largest.  With  the  bark  added, 
the  diameter  would  be  nearly  thirty  feet.  Probably  not  one  tree  in 
fifty,  taking  them  as  they  occur  in  the  whole  range  and  counting 
veterans  only,  is  fifteen  feet  in  diameter  five  feet  from  the  ground. 

There  is  also  some  extravagant  guessing  as  to  height.  Too  many 
tourists  measure  with  the  unaided  eye,  or  accept  a  guidebook's  figures. 
An  authentic  height  of  365  feet — the  measurement  of  a  fallen  trunk — is 
probably  the  greatest.  Very  few  reach  three  hundred  feet.  Many 
unreliable  figures  have  been  published  concerning  the  age  of  bigtrees. 
One  thing  can  be  accepted  without  question;  size  is  no  proof  of  age,  in 
comparing  one  tree  with  another;  neither  is  the  number  of  annual  rings 
in  a  block  cut  from  the  side  of  a  tree  a  reliable  factor  to  determine  age. 
The  only  sure  way  to  determine  the  age  of  one  of  these  trees  is  by  count- 
ing all  the  rings  from  the  pith  to  bark.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
count  the  same  ring  twice,  as  may  be  done  when  the  wood  is  curly. 
John  Muir  counted  4,000  rings  in  a  bigtree  stump.  It  is  believed  that 
no  higher  age  is  backed  by  the  evidence  of  yearly  rings.  It  was  twenty- 
four  feet  in  diameter.  The  count  of  another  of  like  size  made  it  2,200 
years  old;  and  of  still  another  of  the  same  size  placed  its  age  at  1,300 
years.     The  Forest  Service  has  made  acciurate  measurement  and  record 


178  American  Forest  Trees 

of  every  ring  of  growth  in  a  tree  that  was  over  twenty-four  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  it  is  shown  that  during  certain  periods  of  years  the  tree  grew 
three  or  four  times  as  rapidly  as  during  other  periods. 

The  wood  of  bigtree  is  very  light,  soft,  moderately  strong,  brittle, 
summerwood  thin  and  dark  rendering  the  rings  of  annual  growth  easily 
seen;  the  medullary  rays  are  thin,  numerous,  and  very  obscure.  The 
wood  is  light  to  dark  red,  the  thin  sapwood  nearly  white;  it  works  easily, 
splits  readily,  and  polishes  well.  It  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  Trunks  lie  in  the  woods  long  periods  before  decay  seriously  attacks 
them;  but  forest  fires  hollow  them,  and  finally  burn  them  up.  Enor- 
mous depressions  are  found  in  the  forest  where  logs  once  lay,  but  which 
disappeared  long  ago,  judging  by  the  size  of  trees  which  have  since 
grown  in  the  depressions.  The  interior  of  some  large  trunks  which 
have  been  worked  up  on  sawmills  showed  the  scars  of  forest  fires  centuries 
ago.  The  annual  rings  which  covered  one  such  scar  showed  that  the 
burning  took  place  1,700  years  ago. 

Not  much  can  be  said  for  the  commercial  uses  of  bigtree.  Many 
a  species  of  insignificant  size  is  much  more  useful.  Considerable  quan- 
tities have  been  cut  by  sawmills.  The  waste  is  great,  heavy  trunks 
crushing  badly  in  fall.  Logs  are  so  large  that  many  of  them  are  split  with 
gunpowder  to  facilitate  handling  them.  Some  of  the  wood  has  been 
exported  for  lead  pencils;  other  has  been  used  for  fence  posts,  shingles, 
and  grapevine  stakes,  while  the  soft  bark  has  been  worked  into  novelties. 

Macn.^b  Cypress  {Cupressus  inacnabiana)  is  a  California  tree  of  limited  range 
and  little  commercial  value.  It  grows  in  Napa,  Lake,  Mendocino,  and  Trinity 
counties;  is  often  little  more  than  a  branching  shrub,  but  the  largest  specimens  may- 
be thirty  feet  high  and  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and 
usually  of  slow  growth.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  thin,  and  the  bands 
of  summerwood  are  distinct.  The  cones  are  generally  less  than  one  inch  long,  and 
the  seeds  have  narrow  wings.  The  foliage  is  grayish  which  is  due  to  white  glands  in 
the  leaves.  Forest  foliage  is  fragrant.  The  tree  is  known  as  white  cedar,  Shasta 
cypress,  and  California  mountain  cypress. 


^Hb'V' 

^  ^ 

'1 

'4 

U,.„u,„,„ 

REDWOOD 

(Sequoia  Sempervirens) 

THIS  tree's  color  is  responsible  for  its  name.  It  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  coast  redwood  to  distinguish  it  from  bigtree  which 
grows  in  the  interior  of  California.  In  European  markets  it  is  known 
as  California  redwood  to  distinguish  it  from  other  redwoods  growing  in 
distant  parts  of  the  world.  Its  botanical  name,  Sequoia  sempervirens, 
means  evergreen  sequoia.  The  other  species  of  sequoia  is  also  evergreen. 
In  reality,  the  coast  redwood  is  less  of  an  evergreen  than  the  bigtree  is, 
because  the  leaves  of  redwood  turn  brown  two  years  before  they  fall,  but 
there  are  always  plenty  of  green  leaves  on  the  branches.  The  leaves  are 
from  one-quarter  to  one-half  inch  in  length. 

The  geographical  range  of  redwood  covers  about  6,000  square  miles, 
but  the  commercial  range  is  scarcely  one-fifth  as  much.  The  redwood 
belt  extends  500  miles  along  the  Pacific  coast  from  southern  Oregon  to 
central  California.  It  varies  from  ten  to  thirty  miles  in  width.  It  is 
strictly  a  fog  belt  tree,  and  grows  poorly  outside  the  region  of  ocean  fog, 
which  seldom  reaches  an  altitude  more  than  2,800  feet  above  sea  level. 
Where  fog  is  thick  and  frequent,  and  soil  is  moist  and  otherwise  suitable, 
redwood  forests  have  grown  in  such  luxuriance  that  no  species  in  this 
country  exceeds  it.  Stands  running  much  over  100,000  feet  per  acre  are 
frequent,  and  it  is  said  1,000,000  feet  have  been  cut  from  a  single  acre. 

Redwood  cones  are  one  inch  or  less  in  length.  They  ripen  in  one 
season.  Seeds  are  quite  small,  and  are  equipped  with  wings.  The 
bark  is  thick,  but  is  much  thinner  than  the  bark  of  bigtrees,  though  it  is 
in  gieat  ridges  like  the  bark  of  that  species.  The  habits  of  the  two 
species,  as  to  form  of  crown,  are  similar.  Young  redwoods,  particularly 
if  they  grow  in  the  open,  develop  symmetrical  and  conical  crowns  which 
they  retain  until  the  trunks  are  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Lower 
limbs  die  and  fall  off  after  that,  and  old  trees  have  crowns  so  small  that 
it  would  seem  impossible  that  they  could  supply  the  wood-building 
material  for  trunks  so  large.  That  the  growth  should  be  slow  under 
such  circumstances  is  to  be  expected.  The  ages  of  mature  trees  vary 
from  500  to  800  years,  but  an  extreme  age  of  1,373  years  is  on  record. 
The  average  is,  therefore,  considerably  below  that  of  bigtrees. 

Redwoods  grow  as  tall  as  bigtrees,  but  do  not  equal  them  in 
diameter  of  trunk,  though  trees  twenty  feet  in  diameter  occur. 

A  noticeable  feature  of  the  forests  is  that,  in  a  given  stand, 
nearly  all  trees  are  of  the  same  height,  irrespective  of  size  of  tnmk. 
The  crowns  go  up  to  the  light  and  when  they  reach  the  common  level 


182  American  Forest  Trees 

of  others,  and  secure  a  share  of  light,  they  show  no  disposition  to  go 
higher.  The  doctrine  which  they  silently  put  into  practice  is  to  live 
and  let  others  live.  That  habit  makes  it  possible  for  redwoods  to  grow 
in  very  dense  stands,  which  they  could  not  do  if  a  few  trees  domineered 
over  the  others,  and  appropriated  the  light  to  themselves. 

When  old  age  overtakes  the  giant  redwoods,  they  exhibit  the  first 
symptoms  of  weakened  vitality  by  dying  at  the  top.  Most  trees  over 
five  hundred  years  old  are  "stag-headed."  From  that  period  they  die 
slowly,  but  usually  siu-vive  two  or  three  hundred  years  after  the  visible 
signs  of  approaching  death  strike  them. 

Redwood  has  an  advantage  over  nearly  all  other  needle-leaf  trees 
in  that  it  propagates  by  both  seeds  and  sprouts.  Few  softwoods  send 
up  sprouts  from  stumps  or  roots.  Redwoods  of  large  size  are  produced 
that  way,  and  the  stumps  of  very  old  trees  send  up  many  vigorous  shoots. 
Sometimes  a  ring  of  large  trees  surrounds  a  depression  in  the  ground 
where  the  parent  tree  grew,  died,  and  decayed. 

Sprouts  are  of  course  confined  to  the  immediate  proximity  of  the 
parent  tree,  but  redwood  seeds  are  scattered  by  the  wind  over  vacant 
spaces.  This  results  in  dense  stands  where  other  conditions  are  favor- 
able, but  the  species  has  never  been  able  to  establish  itself  far  inland  or 
high  on  mountains. 

In  1880  the  Federal  census  made  a  rough  estimate  of  the  available 
redwood,  and  placed  it  at  25,825,000,000  feet.  More  than  twenty  years 
later,  with  heavy  cutting  all  the  time,  private  estimates  placed  the 
remaining  stand  at  over  50,000,000,000  feet.  The  second  estimate  was 
unquestionably  nearer  correct  than  the  first.  The  stand  of  no  important 
timber  tree  in  this  country  is  more  easily  estimated  than  redwood. 
The  forests  are  compact,  the  trees  large,  the  trunks  similar  in  form, 
and  the  well-timbered  area  is  comparatively  small.  Redwood  has  been 
called  the  most  important  timber  tree  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  title 
probably  confers  too  much,  though  the  tree's  importance  is  beyond 
question.  The  annual  cut  of  Douglas  fir  is  nearly  ten  times  as  large  as 
of  redwood,  and  the  supply  still  in  the  forests  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  redwood.  The  cut  of  western  yellow  pine  likewise  exceeds  the 
output  of  redwood,  and  the  remaining  supply  is  larger.  The  cut  of 
western  red  cedar,  including  shingles,  is  about  the  same,  and  the 
remaining  stand  of  cedar  is  very  large.  Western  hemlock,  too,  exists 
in  large  quantity,  and  its  importance  as  a  source  of  timber  supply  may 
be  equal  to  redwood. 

Redwood  is  frequently  referred  to  as  one  of  the  lightest  in  this 
country.  Its  weight  per  cubic  foot,  oven-dry,  is  26.2  pounds.  On  the 
same  basis,  white  pine  is  24,  southern  white  cedar  20.7,  northern  white 


American  Forest  Trees  183 

cedar  19.7,  and  bigtree  18.2.  There  are  woods  in  Florida  lighter  than 
any  of  these.  Redwood  is  very  soft,  yet  it  dulls  tools  quickly.  It  is 
moderately  strong,  a  little  below  white  pine;  it  is  brittle,  again  ranking 
below  white  pine;  it  splits  and  works  easily  and  polishes  well.  Few,  if 
any  woods  surpass  this  one  in  splitting  properties.  Boards  twelve  feet 
long  and  a  foot  wide  may  be  rived  from  selected  logs,  and  they  present 
surfaces  nearly  as  smooth  as  if  cut  with  a  saw.  However,  curly  and 
wavy  redwood  is  not  uncommon,  and  that,  too,  splits  well,  but  the 
surface  is  not  smooth.  The  width  of  annual  rings  varies,  usually  wide 
in  young  timber  and  narrow  in  old.  The  bands  of  summerwood  are 
narrow  and  clearly  defined.  The  surface  of  redwood  lumber  absorbs 
water  quickly,  yet,  for  some  reason,  creosote  and  other  preservatives 
can  be  forced  into  the  wood  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Fortu- 
nately, it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  this  timber  to  ;)revent  decay,  for,  in 
almost  any  position,  it  wears  out  before  it  rots.  Shingles,  and  window 
and  door  frames  of  the  old  barracks  buildings  at  Eureka,  California, 
remained  in  place  until  fifty  years  of  wind  and  driven  sand  wore  them 
away.  Railroads  use  the  wood  for  ties  until  they  wear  out,  not  until 
they  rot  out.  Farmers  near  some  of  the  California  railroads  gather  up 
the  rejected  worn  ties  by  thousands  and  use  them  for  fence  posts.  When 
redwood  is  employed  as  city  paving  blocks  it  is  wear  and  not  decay  that 
puts  them  out  of  commission. 

The  medullary  rays  of  redwood  are  thin  and  very  obscure,  but 
numerous.  Few  woods  show  them  to  less  advantage  in  quarter-sawing. 
The  lack  of  luster  in  the  surface  of  polished  panels  is  well  known.  The 
wood's  beauty  is  in  its  sameness  and  richness  of  color.  Except  curly 
specimens  and  burls,  the  wood  may  be  said  to  have  no  figure,  though 
in  planks  cut  tangentially,  the  contrast  of  spring  and  summerwood 
displays  some  figure  in  a  modest  way.  It  is  possible  to  wash  much  of  the 
coloring  matter  out  of  the  wood,  if  it  is  first  chipped  fine.  It  washes  from 
the  smiace  by  ordinary  exposure  to  weather.  Red  rainwater  runs  from 
a  roof  of  new  redwood  shingles,  and  weatherboarding ,  posts,  and  picket 
fences  fade  perceptibly  in  a  few  months.  This  coloring  matter  when 
washed  out  in  large  amounts  in  the  process  of  paper  making  has  been 
manufactm-ed  into  fuel  gas. 

A  complete  list  of  the  uses  of  redwood  is  not  practicable,  for  this 
material  goes  into  most  of  the  large  wood-using  factories  of  this  country, 
and  much  is  exported — nearly  60,000,000  feet  annually  going  to  foreign 
countries.  It  has  been  much  employed  in  California  cities  and  towns 
for  picket  fences,  and  as  posts  for  wire  and  plank  fences.  It  is,  next 
to  western  red  cedar,  the  most  important  shingle  wood  of  the  Pacific 
coast.     One  western  railroad  alone  had  in  its  tracks  12,000,000  redwood 


184  American  Forest  Trees 

ties  at  one  time.  Builders  of  tanks,  flumes,  and  water  pipes  procure 
some  of  their  best  material,  and  large  quantities  of  it,  from  redwood 
sawmills.  Few  woods  are  more  universally  found  in  furniture  factories. 
GowEN  Cypress  (Cupressus  goveniana)  follows  the  California  coast  from 
Mendocino  county,  California,  to  San  Diego,  and  ascends  mountains  to  the  height  of 
3,000  feet  in  some  localities.  At  its  best  it  is  fifty  feet  liigh  and  two  feet  in  diameter; 
but  it  extends  as  a  shrub  over  many  sandy  tracts.  Specimens  no  more  than  a  foot 
high  sometimes  bear  cones.  The  Gowen  cypress  sheds  its  leaves  the  third  and  fourth 
years.  Cones  are  from  one-half  to  one  inch  long,  and  each  bears  about  100  seeds. 
The  wood  is  light,  soft,  weak,  light  brown  in  color,  the  thick  sapwood  nearly  white. 
The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  obscure.  The  wood  is  used  for  posts  and  other 
ranch  purposes.  Woodpeckers  attack  t'le  trunks,  picking  holes  through  the  bark  to 
suck  the  juice  from  the  cambium  layer  beneath. 

Dwarf  Cypress  {Ctipressus  pygnura)  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  stunted 
form  of  Gowen  cypress.  The  ranges  of  both  lie  in  the  same  region,  on  the  coast  of 
California  in  Mendocino  county.  The  average  height  of  dwarf  cypress  is  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet,  with  trunk  diameter  from  six  to  twelve  inches;  but  in  peat  swamps  and 
on  sterile  sands  it  may  not  exceed  three  or  four  feet  in  height.  It  bears  abundant 
cones  at  that  size,  and  sometimes  a  tree  no  more  than  a  foot  high  has  mature  cones. 
They  ripen  the  second  year,  but  remain  a  long  time  on  the  branches.  The  trees  thrive 
in  the  most  forbidding  places,  and  are  sometimes  the  only  occupants  of  bogs  or  sand 
dunes.  The  wood  is  necessarily  of  little  value,  because  of  the  small  size  of  trees. 
There  seems  to  be  no  record  of  a  dwarf  cypress  over  sixty  years  of  age;  but  it  is  be- 
lieved that  much  older  trees  have  fallen  victims  to  fire. 


HEMLOCK 


HEMLOCK 

[Tsuga  Canadensis) 

SEVEN  hemlocks  are  known  in  the  world,  four  of  them  in  America. 
Two  of  these  are  in  the  East,  two  in  the  West.  The  eastern  species 
are  the  Canadian  and  Carolinian.  The  former  is  Tsuga  canadensis,  the 
latter  Tsuga  caroliniana.  The  western  species  are,  mountain  hemlock 
{Tsuga  mertensiana) ,  and  western  hemlock  {Tsuga  heterophylla).  The 
word  tsuga  is  Japanese  and  means  hemlock. 

The  hemlock  lumber  in  eastern  markets  is  practically  all  from  one 
species,  which  is  known  as  hemlock  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Kentucky,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  Ontario.  In  Ver- 
mont, Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  West 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina;  in  England  it  is  called  hem- 
lock spruce;  spruce  tree  in  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia;  spruce  pine 
in  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia;  to  the 
New  York  Indians  it  was  known  as  oh-neh-tah,  which  being  interpreted 
means  "greens  on  the  stick." 

The  range  of  hemlock  extends  east  and  west  more  than  fifteen 
hundred  miles,  from  Nova  Scotia  to  western  Wisconsin ;  south  to  Dela- 
ware and  southern  Michigan,  and  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to 
northern  Alabama  and  Georgia.  The  original  quantity  of  timber  was 
enormous,  for  large  areas  were  covered  with  dense  stands.  The  largest 
trees  are  found  near  the  southern  part  of  its  range,  among  the  mountains 
of  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  timber  has  always 
been  in  the  North.  It  thrives  best  in  well  drained  soil,  but  it  likes  cool 
situations  and  often  develops  dense  forests  on  northern  slopes  or  in 
deep  ravines;  but  it  maintains  a  foothold  on  ridges,  on  the  banks  of 
streams,  and  around  the  borders  of  swamps. 

The  cones  are  very  small,  about  a  half  inch  in  length,  growing 
singly  from  the  lower  side  of  the  branchlet.  Their  scales  are  rounded 
and  thin,  light  brown  in  color.  The  seeds  are  winged  and  even  when 
ripe  the  cones  do  not  spread  apart  perceptibly.  The  seeds  escape, 
however,  slowly  during  the  winter  following  their  maturity.  They  are 
very  small,  and  their  wings  distribute  them  a  hundred  feet  or  more.  The 
seeds  germinate  best  on  leaf  mold,  but  the  seedling  takes  several  years  to 
thrust  its  roots  deep  into  the  mineral  soil.  During  that  time,  growth  is 
very  slow.  A  seedling  five  years  old  may  not  exceed  five  inches  in 
height ;  but  when  its  roots  have  developed,  growth  is  fairly  rapid.     The 


188  American  Forest  Trees 

distribution  of  seeds  is  often  facilitated  by  the  activities  of  red  squirrels, 
and  perhaps  other  small  mammals,  which  climb  the  trees  in  winter  and 
tear  the  cones  apart  to  get  at  the  seeds.  Many  of  the  seeds  are  devoured, 
but  more  escape  and  fly  away  on  the  winter  winds. 

Hemlock  leaves  are  narrow  and  about  half  an  inch  long.  Examin- 
ed closely,  particularly  with  a  magnifying  glass,  rows  of  white  dots  extend 
from  end  to  end  on  the  under  side.  Small  as  these  white  points  are 
separately,  when  seen  in  the  aggregate  they  change  the  color  of  the  whole 
crown  of  the  tree.  This  is  illustrated  by  looking  at  a  hemlock  from  a 
distance — the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves  on  the  drooping  twigs  being  then 
visible  and  the  tree's  aspect  dark  green.  Approach  the  tree,  and 
look  up  from  its  base— the  under  side  of  the  leaves  being  then  visible — 
and  the  dark  color  changes  to  a  light  silvery  tint.  The  whiteness  is  due 
to  the  white  spots  on  the  leaves.  The  spots  are  stomata  (mouths),  and 
are  parts  of  the  chemical  laboratory  which  carriers  on  the  tree's  living 
processes.  All  tree  leaves  have  stomata,  but  all  are  not  arranged  in  the 
same  way  and  are  not  visible  alike.  Few  trees  have  them  as  prominent 
as  the  hemlocks. 

Hemlock  attains  a  height  from  sixty  to  100  feet  and  a  diameter 
from  two  to  fotir.  When  it  grows  in  the  open,  it  is  one  of  the  handsom- 
est and  most  symmetrical  evergreens  of  any  country.  Its  dark,  dense 
foliage  will  permit  scarcely  any  stmlight  to  filter  through.  When  forest- 
grown,  it  loses  its  lower  limbs.  In  the  forester's  language,  they  are 
"shaded  off,"  and  long,  smooth  trunks  are  developed;  but  the  stubs 
from  which  the  branches  fall  remain  buried  deep  inside  the  smoothest  bole, 
and  the  saws  will  find  them  when  the  logs  are  converted  into  lumber. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  hemlock's  slow  growth  during  the 
seedling's  first  four  or  five  years.  That  takes  place  in  the  dense  shade  of 
the  hemlock  forest.  If  the  seed  falls  on  open  ground,  in  full  sunlight, 
the  chance  is  that  it  will  not  germinate;  but  if  it  does,  the  seedling  is 
doomed  to  an  early  death.  It  cannot  endiu-e  strong  light.  This  fact  is 
of  great  importance,  for  it  means  the  end  of  hemlock  forests.  When  a 
stand  is  cut  and  the  sunshine  reaches  the  ground,  no  seedlings  bring  on  a 
new  forest.  White  pine  seeds  grow  in  open  ground,  in  old  fields,  in 
burnt  woods,  wherever  they  reach  soil,  but  hemlock  must  scatter  its 
seeds  in  cool,  deep  shade  or  they  will  do  little  good.  Strong,  vigorous, 
and  healthy  as  hemlock  trees  are,  they  are  killed  more  easily  than 
almost  any  other.  Cut  a  few  trees  from  the  center  of  a  mature  hemlock 
clump,  and  the  chance  is  that  several  trees  next  to  the  open  space  thus 
made  will  die.  The  unusual  light  proves  too  much  for  their  roots  which 
had  always  been  cool  and  damp ;  but  when  young  hemlocks  are  protected 
until  they  get  a  start,  they  thrive  nicely  in  the  open. 


American  Forest  Trees  189 

The  wood  of  hemlock  is  light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  coarse  and 
crooked  grained,  diiScult  to  work,  liable  to  windshake,  splinters  badly, 
not  durable.  The  summerwood  of  the  annual  ring  is  conspicuous;  and 
the  thin  medullary  rays  are  numerous.  The  color  of  hemlock  heartwood 
is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  often  nearly  white.  The  sapwood  is 
darker.  Limibermen  recognize  two  varieties,  red  and  white,  but  botan- 
ists do  not  recognize  them. 

The  physical  characters  of  hemlock  are  nearly  all  unfavorable,  yet 
it  has  become  a  useful  and  widely  used  wood.  It  is  largely  manufactured 
into  coarse  lumber  and  used  for  outside  work — railway  ties,  joists,  raf- 
ters, sheathing,  plank  walks,  laths,  etc.  It  is  rarely  used  for  inside 
finishing,  owing  to  its  brittle  and  splintery  character.  Clean  boards 
made  into  panels  or  similar  work  and  finished  in  the  natural  color  often 
present  a  very  handsome  appearance,  owing  to  the  peculiar  pinkish  tint 
of  the  wood,  ripening  and  improving  with  age. 

With  the  growing  scarcity  of  white  and  Norway  pine,  hemlock  has 
become  the  natural  substitute  for  these  woods  for  many  purposes.  It 
has  never  been  conceded  that  hemlock  possesses  the  intrinsic  merit  of 
either  of  the  northern  pines  for  structural  pm-poses,  but  it  has  proven  a 
suitable  substitute  for  a  variety  of  uses,  notably  for  framing  and  sheath- 
ing of  medium  priced  structures. 

In  1910  hemlock  lumber  was  cut  in  twenty-one  states,  the  total 
output  exceeding  2,500,000,000  feet.  Only  four  species  or  groups  of 
species  exceeded  it  in  amount.  They  were  southern  yellow  pines, 
Douglas  fir,  the  oaks,  and  white  pine.  The  principal  cut  of  hemlock 
lumber  was  in  the  following  states  in  the  order  named:  Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  West  Vu-ginia,  New  York,  Maine,  Vermont, 
Virginia,  New  Hampshire,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina.  Ten  other 
states  produced  smaller  amounts. 

Hemlock  possesses  remarkable  holding  power  on  nails  and  spikes, 
and  that  is  one  reason  for  its  large  use  for  railroad  ties.  It  does  not  easily 
split,  and  there  is  no  likelihood  that  spikes  will  work  loose ;  but  the  wood 
decays  quickly  in  damp  situations,  and  unless  given  preservative  treat- 
ment, hemlock  ties  do  not  last  long.  They  are  pretty  soft  anyway,  and 
where  traffic  is  heavy,  rails  cut  them  badly. 

Manufactiurers  of  boxes  and  crates  use  much  hemlock.  The  annual 
use  for  that  purpose  in  Massachusetts  is  about  27,000,000  feet,  in  Mich- 
igan practically  the  same  quantity,  in  Illinois  34,000,000,  and  varying 
quantities  in  many  other  states.  Michigan  converts  nearly  100,000,000 
feet  a  year  into  flooring  and  other  planing  mill  products,  and  Wisconsin 
and  other  hemlock  states  follow  it  in  lesser  amounts.  The  wood  is 
employed  by  car  builders,  slack  coopers,  manufacturers  of  relrigerators, 


190  American  Forest  Trees 

silos,  and  farm  implements;  but  the  largest  demand  comes  from  those 
who  use  the  rough  lumber. 

Hemlock  bark  is  the  most  important  taiming  material  in  this 
country.  It  has  long  been  used  by  leather  makers  who  generally  mix  it 
with  some  other  bark  or  extract  because  leather  tanned  with  hemlock 
alone  has  a  redder  color  than  is  desired. 

Large  areas  of  hemlock  forests  have  been  cut  for  the  bark  alone. 
Formerly  the  wood  was  of  so  little  value  that  it  was  cheaper  to  leave  it  in 
the  forest  than  to  take  it  out.  The  peelers  worked  in  early  summer, 
cutting  trees  and  removing  the  bark  in  four-foot  lengths,  which  was 
measured  by  the  cord,  though  often  sold  by  weight.  Care  was  taken 
that  the  bark  be  removed  from  the  slashings  before  the  dry  weather  of 
autumn,  for  fire  was  to  be  expected  then,  and  anything  combustible  in 
the  woods  at  that  time  was  likely  to  be  lost.  The  tracts  on  which  bark 
peelers  worked  were  called  "slashings,"  and  they  were  fire  traps  of  the 
worst  kind  with  their  tangled  masses  of  tops  and  branches. 

Large  quantities  of  hemlock  bark  are  still  peeled  every  simimer, 
but  the  practice  is  less  destructive  than  formerly.  The  trunks  are  worth 
taking  out,  and  when  the  fire  comes  late  in  the  season  it  consumes  little 
valuable  hemlock.  A  permanent  decline  in  the  annual  production  of  this 
wood  has  not  yet  begim,  but  it  must  soon  set  in,  for  the  demand  cannot  be 
indefinitely  met. 


WESTERN  HEMLOCK 


w 


WESTERN  HEMLOCK 

{Tsiiga  Hcterophylla) 

HEN  this  wood  began  to  go  to  market,  its  promoters  found 
difficulties  in  securing  a  trial  for  it  in  eastern  states,  because  of  its 
name.  The  eastern  hemlock  was  known  to  be  a  substantial  wood,  but 
a  rough  one  with  many  faults  linked  with  its  virtues.  It  was  naturally 
supposed  that  the  western  hemlock  had  all  the  faults  of  its  eastern  rela- 
tive with  possibly  some  of  the  good  qualities  left  out;  and  there  was 
general  hesitancy  to  put  the  new  comer  to  a  trial.  That  caused  a 
movement  among  western  lumbermen  to  sell  their  hemlock  under  some 
other  name.  They  were  confident  the  wood  had  only  to  be  given  a  trial 
and  it  would  win  its  way,  after  which  the  name  would  make  little 
difference.  Accordingly,  it  was  started  to  market  under  the  name  of 
Alaska  pine,  although  Alaska  has  no  pine  large  enough  for  good 
lumber.  Other  lumbermen  thought  it  advisable  to  choose  a  name  less 
likely  to  excite  suspicion,  and  they  called  it  Washington  pine.  Others 
designated  it  as  spruce,  and  still  others  as  fir.  It  was  more  likely  to 
pass  for  fir  than  for  pine  or  spruce. 

The  lumber  is  now  generally  known  as  western  hemlock,  but  in 
California  some  call  it  hemlock  spruce  or  California  hemlock  spruce.  In 
Idaho,  Washington,  and  Oregon  the  name  hemlock  usually  suffices; 
while  western  hemlock  spruce,  and  western  hemlock  fir,  and  Prince 
Albert's  fir  are  names  used  in  speaking  of  lumber  and  of  the  tree  in  the 
forest. 

Western  hemlock's  range  extends  north  and  south  a  thousand 
miles,  from  southern  Alaska  to  California  south  of  San  Francisco. 
It  grows  from  the  Pacific  coast  eastward  to  Montana,  five  hundred  miles 
or  more.  It  ascends  to  altitudes  of  6,000  feet,  but  it  is  not  at  its 
best  on  high  mountains,  but  in  the  warm,  damp  region  near  the  coast 
in  Washington  and  Oregon.  Trees  200  feet  high  and  eight  or  ten  in 
diameter  are  found,  but  the  average  size  is  much  less. 

The  leaves  of  western  hemlock  are  dark  green  and  very  lustrous 
above.  The  flowers  are  yellow  and  purple.  Cones  are  one  inch  or  less 
in  length,  and  the  small  seeds  are  equipped  with  wings  which  carry  them 
some  distance  from  the  base  of  the  parent  tree.  The  seeds  will  germinate 
and  develop  a  root  system  without  touching  mineral  soil.  Their  ability 
to  do  so  assists  them  greatly  in  maintaining  the  tree's  position  in  the 
damp  climate  where  this  hemlock  reaches  its  best  development.  The 
ground  in  the  forest,  with  all  objects  that  lie  upon  it,  is  often  covered 
with  wet  moss  a  foot  or  more  thick.     The  seeds  of  most  trees  would 


194  American  Forest  Trees 

inevitably  perish  if  they  fell  upon  such  a  bed  of  moss;  but  the  seeds  of 
western  hemlock  germinate,  and  the  rootlets  strike  through  the  moss 
until  they  reach  the  soil  beneath,  and  seedling  trees  are  soon  growing 
vigorously.  Seeds  often  germinate  in  the  moss  on  logs  and  stumps,  but 
the  roots  strike  for  the  ground,  and  generally  reach  it.  In  this  habit  the 
western  hemlock  resembles  the  yellow  birch  of  the  East  whose  seeds  seem 
to  germinate  best  on  mossy  logs  and  stumps. 

Western  hemlock  has  one  of  the  bad  habits  of  its  eastern  relative : 
it  does  not  prune  itself  very  well,  even  in  dense  forests,  and  the  lumber  is 
apt  to  be  knotty,  but  the  knots  are  usually  sound,  though  dark  in  color. 

The  wood  of  western  hemlock  is  moderately  light,  but  twenty  per 
cent  heavier  than  eastern  hemlock;  stronger  than  the  wood  of  other 
American  hemlocks,  and  nearly  twenty-five  per  cent  stronger  than  the 
eastern  commercial  species,  and  nearly  fifty  per  cent  stiffer.  It  is 
tough  and  hard,  but  has  little  of  the  flinty  texture  of  other  hemlocks. 
Its  color  is  pale  browm,  tinged  with  yellow,  the  thin  sapwood  nearly 
white.  It  is  fairly  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Its  growth  is 
usually  rapid,  and  trees  live  to  a  great  age.  Some  of  the  largest  are 
said  to  reach  800  years.  The  summerwood  often  constitutes  half  of 
the  yearly  ring,  and  is  dark  yellow.  The  medullary  rays  are  num- 
erous and  rather  prominent.  When  cut  radially,  the  appearance,  size, 
and  arrangement  of  the  exposed  medullary  rays  suggest  those  of  sugar 
maple  when  exposed  in  the  same  way. 

The  annual  sawmill  output  of  western  hemlock  is  about  170,000,000 
feet.  The  largest  market  for  it  is  in  the  region  where  it  grows,  and  it  is 
used  as  rough  lumber  for  ranch  purposes  and  for  buildings  in  towns;  but 
a  considerable  quantity  is  further  manufactured.  About  one-fourth  of 
the  entire  sawmill  output  goes  to  the  factories  of  Idaho,  Washington,  and 
Oregon.  A  list  of  the  wood's  principal  uses  in  those  states  shows  its 
intrinsic  value.  The  largest  quantity  is  demanded  by  box  factories. 
The  wood's  nail-holding  power  commends  it  for  that  use,  but  of  no  less 
importance  is  its  strength.  Eighty-three  per  cent  of  all  the  wood  used 
for  boxes  in  Washington  is  western  hemlock.  Cooperage  calls  for  much 
of  this  wood  also.  Fruit  and  vegetable  barrels  are  made  of  it.  Its 
place  in  furniture  manufacture  corresponds  to  that  of  the  other  hemlock 
in  the  East.  The  pulp  business  is  not  very  extensive  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
but  western  hemlock  is  a  respectable  contributor.  It  is  suitable  for 
burial  boxes,  and  probably  ranks  about  third  among  the  woods  within 
its  range,  those  used  in  larger  amounts  being  Sitka  spruce  and  western 
red  cedar.  It  is  coming  into  use  as  interior  finish,  particularly  as  door 
and  window  frame  material.  Fixture  manufacturers  employ  it  for 
drawers  and  shelves.     It  is  made  into  flooring,  ceiling,  molding,  and 


American  Forest  Trees  195 

wainscoting.  Door  makers  use  a  little  of  it  as  core  material  over  which 
to  glue  veneers.  It  is  made  into  veneer,  but  of  the  cheaper  sorts,  such  as 
are  suitable  for  crates  and  berry  boxes. 

The  Pacific  coast  is  so  abundantly  supplied  with  excellent  soft- 
woods that  only  those  of  good  quality  have  any  chance  in  the  local 
markets.  The  fact  that  western  hemlock  has  won  and  is  holding  an 
important  place  in  active  competition  with  such  woods  as  western  red 
cedar,  yellow  cedar,  Sitka  spruce,  and  Douglas  fir,  is  proof  tliat  it  is 
valuable  material.  It  is  winning  its  way  in  the  central  part  of  the 
United  States  also,  but  not  as  rapidly  as  it  has  won  in  the  West. 

The  bark  of  western  hemlock  is  rated  high  as  a  tanning  material. 
The  bark  on  young  trees  is  thin,  but  as  the  trunks  increase  in  size  and  age 
the  bark  thickens.  It  is  richer  in  tannin  than  the  bark  of  eastern 
hemlock,  but  is  not  so  extensively  used  because  the  demand  is  less  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

The  future  of  the  western  hemlock  is  fairly  well  assured.  Its 
range  is  extensive  and  varied,  and  lumbermen  will  be  a  long  time  in 
cutting  the  last  of  the  present  stand.  Reproduction  is  satisfactory. 
It  will  be  important  in  future  forestry,  when  people  will  grow  much  of 
the  timber  they  need;  but  this  tree  will  stick  pretty  close  to  the  range 
where  nature  planted  it. 

Mountain  Hemlock  (Tsuga  mertensiana)  is  a  near  relative  of 
western  hemlock,  and  occupies  the  same  geographical  ranges  but  higher 
on  the  mountains.  Near  Sitka,  Alaska,  it  occurs  at  sea  level,  but 
southward  it  rises  higher  until  on  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in 
California  it  is  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  one  of  the  timber  line 
trees  in  many  parts  of  its  range,  though  it  is  nowhere  above  all  others. 
It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  state  what  its  average  size  is.  That  depends 
upon  the  particular  region  considered.  At  its  best  it  is  100  feet  high  or 
even  more ;  at  its  poorest  it  sprawls  on  the  rocks  like  a  shrub.  Specimens 
of  fair  size  are  from  twenty-five  tu  sixty  feet  high,  and  ten  to  twenty 
inches  in  diameter.  Cones  vary  in  size  fully  as  much  as  the  trunks. 
Some  are  one-half  inch  in  length,  others  are  three  inches.  The  leaves 
vary  no  less,  some  being  a  one-twelfth  inch  long,  others  one  inch.  The 
leaves  stand  out  on  all  sides  of  the  twig,  and  fall  during  the  third  and 
fourth  years.  They  are  bluish-green.  The  seeds  fall  in  September  and 
October,  and  are  provided  with  large  wings.  The  wood  is  light  in  weight, 
soft,  and  pale  reddish-brown.  The  mountain  hemlock  is  nearly  always 
spoken  of  as  spruce  by  persons  who  are  not  botanists.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  leaves  on  the  twigs  gives  the  impression  that  it  is  a  spruce, 
and  among  the  names  by  which  it  is  known  in  its  native  region  are 
Williamson's  spruce,  weeping  spruce,  alpine  spruce,  hemlock  spruce. 


196 


American  Forest  Trees 


Patton's  spruce,  and  alpine  western  spruce.  There  is  little  prospect  that 
this  tree  will  ever  become  important  as  a  source  of  lumber.  It  is  no- 
where very  abundant,  and  what  timber  there  is  generally  stands  so 
remote  from  mills  that  little  of  it  will  ever  be  taken  out.  Botanists  and 
mountain  travelers  who  have  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  mountain 
hemlock  in  the  wildness  of  its  natural  surroundings  have  spoken  and 
written  much  in  its  praise.  It  has  been  called  the  loveliest  cone-bearing 
tree  of  the  American  forest.  That  praise,  however,  applies  only  when 
the  tree  is  at  its  best,  with  its  broad,  pyramidal  crown,  balanced  and 
proportioned  with  geometrical  accuracy,  outlined  against  a  background 
of  rocks,  peaks,  snow,  or  sky.  Its  other  form,  prostrate  and  angular 
where  the  tree  occurs  on  cold,  bleak  mountains,  has  never  inspired  praise 
from  anybody,  though  its  defiance  of  the  elements  and  its  persistence  in 
spite  of  adversity,  cannot  but  challenge  the  admiration  of  all  who  like 
a  fair  and  square  fighter.  There  are  many  intermediate  forms.  On 
mountains  facing  the  Pacific,  and  at  altitudes  of  6,000  or  7,000  feet,  the 
young  hemlocks  are  buried  under  deep  snow  weeks  or  months  at  a  time. 
They  are  pressed  down  by  the  weight  of  tons,  and  it  might  be  supposed 
that  not  a  whole  branch  would  be  left  on  them,  and  that  the  main  stems 
would  be  deformed  the  rest  of  their  lives.  But  when  the  early  summer 
Sim  melts  the  snow,  the  young  trees  spring  back  to  their  former  faultless 
forms,  without  a  twig  missing  or  a  twisted  branch. 


WESTERN  YEW 


WESTERN  YEW 

{Taxus  Brevifolia) 

THE  Pacific  yew  is  an  interesting  tree,  useful  for  many  minor  pur- 
poses, but  it  is  no.t  procurable  in  large  quantities.  Its  north  and 
south  range  covers  more  than  1,000  miles,  from  Alaska  to  central 
California;  while  the  species  occurs  from  the  Pacific  coast  eastward  to 
Montana.  It  approaches  sea  level  on  some  of  the  Alaskan  islands,  and 
toward  the  southern  part  of  its  range  it  reaches  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet. 

In  Idaho  it  is  called  mountain  mahogany,  but  apparently  without 
good  reason.  Its  color  may  bear  some  resemblance  to  that  wood,  but  it 
is  different  in  so  many  particulars  that  the  name  is  not  appropriate.  The 
names  western  yew  and  Pacific  yew  are  used  interchangeably.  Some- 
times it  bears  the  simple  name  yew;  but  since  there  is  a  yew  in  Florida, 
and  another  in  Europe,  it  is  well  to  give  the  western  species  a  name  which 
will  distinguish  it  from  others.  The  northwestern  Indians  called  it 
"fighting  wood,"  which  was  the  best  description  possible  for  them  to 
give.  They  made  bows  of  it,  and  it  was  superior  to  any  other  wood 
within  their  reach  for  that  purpose.  In  fact,  if  they  could  have  picked 
from  all  the  woods  of  the  United  States  they  could  scarcely  have  found 
its  equal.  It  is  very  strong,  though  in  elasticity  its  rating  is  under 
many  other  woods.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  five  hundred  or  more 
years  ago,  the  European  yew  (a  closely  related  but  different  species)  had 
nearly  the  same  name  in  England  that  the  northwestern  Indians  gave 
the  western  yew.  It  was  called  "the  shooter  yew,"  because  it  was  the 
bow  wood  of  that  time,  and  "bow  staves,"  which  were  rough  pieces  to 
be  worked  out  by  the  bow  makers,  were  articles  of  commerce.  The 
search  for  it  was  so  great,  and  so  long-continued,  that  yew  trees  were 
well-nigh  exterminated  in  the  British  Isles.  It  was,  next  to  oak,  and 
possibly  above  oak,  the  most  indispensable  wood  in  England  at  that  time. 
It  is  instructive  to  observe  that  Indians  who  used  the  bow  found  the 
western  yew  as  indispensable  in  their  life  as  the  English  armies  found  the 
European  yew  at  a  time  when  the  bow  was  the  best  weapon. 

The  northwestern  Indians  put  this  remarkable  wood  to  other  uses. 
They  made  spears  of  it,  and  sometimes  employed  them  as  weapons  of 
war,  but  generally  as  implements  of  the  chase,  particularly  in  harpooning 
salmon  which  in  summer  ascend  the  northwestern  rivers  from  the  Pacific 
ocean  in  immense  schools.  The  Indians  whittled  fishhooks  of  yew 
before  they  were  able  to  buy  steel  hooks  from  traders.  Some  of  those 
unique  hooks  are  still  in  existence,  and  speak  well  of  the  inventive 
genius  of  the  wild  fisherman  of  the  wilderness.     A  proper  crook  was 

199 


200  American  Forest  Trees 

selected  where  a  branch  joined  the  trunk,  and  serviceable  fish  hooks 
were  made  without  any  cross  grain.  They  were  strong  enough  to  hold 
the  largest  fish  that  ascended  the  rivers.  Sometimes  a  bone  barb  was 
skillfully  inserted.  The  Indians  found  a  further  use  for  this  wood  as 
material  for  canoe  paddles.  It  is  so  strong  that  handles  can  be  made 
small  and  blades  thin  without  passing  the  limit  of  safety.  The  manu- 
facture of  boat  paddles  from  yew  continues. 

More  is  used  for  fence  posts  than  for  any  other  one  purpose.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  durable  woods  known  where  it  must  resist  conditions 
conducive  to  decay.  The  name  yew  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  word 
in  a  north  Europe  language  meaning  everlasting.  Yew  fence  posts  are 
not  named  in  statistics,  and  it  is  impossible  to  quote  numbers.  Their 
use  is  confined  to  the  districts  where  they  grow. 

The  manufacturers  of  small  cabinets  draw  supplies  from  this  wood, 
but  the  fact  is  not  mentioned  in  Pacific  states  wood-using  statistics.  It 
is  particularly  liked  for  turnery,  such  as  small  spindles  used  in  furniture 
and  in  grill  work.  It  takes  an  exceptionally  fine  polish,  and  the  wood's 
great  strength  makes  the  use  of  slender  pieces  practicable.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  this  wood  may  be  stained  with  success,  but  its 
natural  color  is  so  attractive  that  there  is  little  need  of  staining  unless 
the  purpose  is  to  imitate  some  more  costly  wood.  If  stained  black  it  is 
an  excellent  substitute  for  ebony. 

Western  yew  figures  little  in  lumber  output.  It  is  not  listed  in  the 
markets.  The  few  logs  which  reach  sawmills  are  never  again  heard  of, 
but  probably  most  of  the  lumber  is  disposed  of  locally  to  those  who 
need  it.  The  tree  is  not  of  good  form  for  saw  timber.  Burls  are  said 
to  make  beautiful  veneer.  Trunks  are  seldom  round,  but  usually  grow 
lopsided.  Most  of  them  are  too  small  for  sawlogs.  The  largest  are 
seldom  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  generally  not  half  that  large.  They 
are  short  and  branched,  the  tree  often  dividing  near  the  ground  in 
several  stems.  The  average  tree  is  scarcely  thirty  feet  high,  but  a  few 
are  twice  that.  Its  growth  is  very  slow.  A  six-inch  trunk  is  seventy- 
five  or  100  years  old,  and  the  largest  sizes  are  from  200  to  350  years. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  efforts  to  grow  western  yew  for  commercial 
purposes  will  be  few.  Wild  trees  will  be  occasionally  cut  as  long  as 
they  last,  and  they  will  probably  last  as  long  as  any  of  their  associates, 
for  they  are  scattered  sparingly  over  several  hundred  thousand  square 
miles  of  country,  and  some  of  it  rough  and  almost  inaccessible.  The 
best  development  of  the  species  is  in  western  Oregon,  Washington,  and 
British  Columbia. 

The  leaves  of  western  yew  are  one-half  or  five-eighths  inch  long. 
The  fruit  consists  of  red  pulp  enclosing  a  hard  seed.     Birds  devour  it 


American  Forest  Trees  201 

eagerly.  The  fruit  is  not  poisonous,  as  the  yew  berries  of  the  Old  World 
are.  It  ripens  in  September  and  falls  in  October.  The  wood  is  fine 
grained,  clear  rose  red,  becoming  gradually  duller  on  exposure.  It 
weighs  39.83  pounds  per  cubic  foot.     Its  fuel  value  is  high. 

Florida  Yew  {Taxus  floridana)  is  extremely  local  in  its  range,  and 
small  in  size.  Few  trees  are  more  than  twenty-five  feet  high  and  one 
foot  in  diameter.  They  are  bushy  and  of  poor  form  for  manufacturing. 
The  only  reported  use  is  as  fence  posts.  The  wood's  durability  fits  it 
for  that  place.  The  species  is  found  in  Gadsden  county,  Florida.  The 
leaves  are  one  inch  or  less  in  length;  flowers  appear  in  March,  and  the 
fruit  ripens  in  October.  The  wood  is  moderately  heavy,  hard,  and 
narrow-ringed,  for  the  trees  grow  slowly.  Its  color  is  dark,  tinged  with 
red,  the  thin  sapwood  being  whiter.  There  is  little  prospect  that  the 
wood  of  this  yew  will  ever  be  more  important  than  it  is  now.  It  is 
often  spoken  of  locally  as  savin,  which  name  is  likewise  given  to  the  red 
cedar  {Juniperus  virginiana),  which  is  abundant  in  this  yew's  range. 

California  Nutmeg  (Tumion  californicum)  is  an  interesting  tree 
which  ranges  over  a  considerable  portion  of  California,  but  is  at  its  best 
in  Mendocino  county  and  the  coast  region  north  of  San  Francisco.  It 
occurs  also  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  in 
central  California,  at  altitudes  up  to  5,000  feet.  It  receives  its  name 
from  the  resemblance  of  its  seeds  to  nutmegs.  Their  surface  is  shriveled, 
but  they  do  not  have  the  nutmeg  odor.  The  wood  and  the  leaves,  when 
bruised,  give  off  an  odor  not  altogether  pleasing.  On  account  of  this,  the 
tree  has  been  called  stinking  cedar.  In  some  localities  it  is  called  yew, 
and  in  others  California  false  nutmeg,  and  coast  nutmeg.  Trees  are 
generally  small,  with  trunks  of  irregular  form.  The  crown  is  open  and 
usually  extends  to  the  ground;  but  in  crowded  situations,  a  rather  shape- 
ly bole  is  developed,  and  the  crown  is  small.  The  usual  size  of  the  tree 
does  not  exceed  a  height  of  fifty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  twenty  inches. 
More  trees  are  below  than  above  that  size;  but  in  extreme  cases  the  tree 
may  reach  a  height  of  eighty-five  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four.  The 
leaves  in  form  and  size  resemble  the  foliage  of  yew,  but  their  points  are 
stiff  and  sharp,  and  if  approached  carelessly  they  will  wound  like  cactus 
thorns.  The  fruit  is  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  a  pulpy  substance  sur- 
rounding the  seed.  The  wood  possesses  properties  which  ought  to  make 
it  valuable,  though  reported  uses  are  strictly  local,  such  as  small  cabinet 
work  and  skiff  making.  It  is  bright  lemon,  yellow,  rather  hard,  takes 
good  polish,  is  of  slow  growth,  with  bands  of  summerwood  thin  but 
distinct,  and  medullary  rays  small,  numerous,  and  obscure.  Its  weight 
is  29.66  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  it  is  not  stiff  or  strong.  It  cannot  attain 
high  place  as  a  manufacturing  material,  because  it  is  too  scarce,  but  it 


202  American  Forest  Trees 

possesses  a  beauty  which  must  bring  it  recognition  as  a  fine  furniture, 
finish,  and  novelty  wood.  A  few  sawlogs  go  to  mills  in  the  region  north 
of  San  Francisco,  but  the  lumber  is  probably  mixed  with  other  kinds 
and  it  goes  to  market  without  a  name.  It  ought  to  be  put  to  a  better 
use. 

Florida  Torreya  {Tumion  iaxifolium)  is  often  called  Chatta- 
hoochee pine  in  the  region  where  it  grows.  That  name  is  generally 
given  to  the  tree  when  planted  for  ornament  in  yards,  parks,  and  along 
streets  of  towns  in  northwestern  Florida.  It  is  known  also  as  stinking 
cedar,  stinking  savin,  and  fetid  yew.  These  names  are  generally 
applied  to  the  forest-grown  tree,  particularly  by  those  who  cut  it  for 
fence  posts,  which  is  its  principal  use.  Its  range  is  local,  being  confined 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  to  Gadsden  county,  Florida,  where  it  grows  on 
limestone  soil.  It  can  never  have  much  importance  as  a  commercial 
timber,  because  it  is  too  scarce.  In  fact,  it  is  in  danger  of  extermination. 
Post  cutters  never  spare  it,  and  its  range  being  so  limited,  there  is  not 
much  hope  for  it.  The  interesting  and  beautiful  tree  is  making  a  game 
fight  for  life.  Many  seedlings  appear  in  the  vicinity  of  old  trees,  while 
stumps,  and  even  prostrate  trunks,  send  up  sprouts  which,  if  let  alone, 
grow  to  tree  size.  Sprouts  on  logs  and  stumps  send  roots  to  the  ground 
as  the  seedling  yellow  birch  does  in  damp  northern  woods.  The  yew-like 
leaves  of  Florida  torreya  are  one  and  a  half  inch  or  less  in  length.  The 
tree  blooms  in  March  and  April,  and  the  drupe-like  fruit,  an  inch  or 
more  in  length,  is  ripe  by  midsummer.  The  tree  is  from  forty  to  sixty 
feet  in  height,  and  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  clothed  in  whorls 
of  limbs,  beginning  near  the  ground,  and  tapering  to  the  top.  The  wood 
is  clear,  bright  yellow,  the  thin  sapwood  of  lighter  color;  soft,  easily 
worked,  and  susceptible  of  fine  polish.  It  is  very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil.  The  green  wood,  and  the  bruised  leaves  and  branches 
give  off  an  odor  suggesting  the  tomato  vine.  The  texture  and  color  of 
the  wood  indicate  that  it  is  well  suited  for  fine  cabinet  work,  but  it  is 
not  a  figured  wood. 


WHITE  OAK 


WHITE  OAK 

(Quercus  Alba) 

OAKS  belong  to  the  beech  family,  that  is,  the  "foodtrees,"*  though 
most  acorns  are  too  bitter  and  contain  too  much  tannin  to  be 
edible ;  some  may  be  eaten,  and  for  that  reason  the  ancients  classed  them 
among  the  food  trees.  "Quercus,"  which  is  the  name  of  the  genus, 
means  oak  in  the  language  of  northwestern  Em-ope.  The  name  white 
oak  nearly  always  suffices,  but  in  Arkansas  it  is  often  called  stave  oak 
because  it  is  the  best  stave  timber  in  that  region.  It  could  with  equal 
reason  be  called  stave  oak  nearly  anywhere,  for  it  is  excellent  material 
for  tight  cooperage.  Formerly  it  was  sometimes  called  Baltimore  oak, 
because  many  of  the  staves  of  export  were  shipped  from  that  city.  That 
name,  however,  belonged  more  to  post  oak  (Quercus  minor)  than  to 
white  oak,  because  the  fine  staves  which  went  out  of  Chesapeake  bay  in 
the  export  trade,  were  largely  post  oak.  It  matters  little  now,  for  the 
name  Baltimore  oak  is. not  much  used,  and  white  oak  may  be  said  to 
have  only  one  trade  name.  After  the  wood  is  dressed,  it  has  different 
names  referring  to  the  style  of  finish  and  not  to  the  wood  itself. 

White  oak  grows  in  all  the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and 
it  crosses  that  stream  two  or  three  hundred  miles  in  some  places.     It 


*The  oaks  of  this  country,  which  number  more  than  fifty  species,  have  been 
classified  in  different  ways,  depending  upon  the  purpose  in  view.  In  the  present 
treatment  they  will  be  divided  in  two  general  groups,  white  oaks  and  black  oaks.  No 
effort  will  be  made  to  draw  hard  and  fast  Unes,  because  it  is  not  necessary.  Oaks 
which  ripen  their  acorns  in  one  year  are  listed  as  white  oaks;  those  with  two  year 
acorns,  as  black  oaks.  This  is  a  botanical  rather  than  a  lumberman's  classification; 
yet  lumbermen  recognize  it  in  a  general  way.  White  oak  (Quercus  alba)  is  clearly 
entitled  to  head  the  Ust  of  white  oaks,  and  red  oak  (Quercus  rubra)  should  occupy  a 
similar  position  with  regard  to  the  black  oak  group.  In  numbers,  the  white  oaks  and 
black  oaks  are  nearly  equally  divided,  one  authority  giving  twenty-seven  species  of 
white  oak  and  twenty-five  of  black  oak  in  the  United  States;  but  botanists  differ  as  to 
exact  numbers  of  each.  The  following  species  are  usually  classed  as  white  oaks: 
White  oak  (Quercus  alba),  valley  oak  (Quercus  lobaia).  Brewer  oak  (Quercus  breweri), 
Sadler  oak  (Quercus  sadleri),  Pacific  post  oak  (Quercus  garryana),  Gambel  oak 
(Quercus  gambelii),  post  oak  (Quercus  minor).  Chapman  oak  (Quercus chapmani) ,  bur 
oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa)  overcup  oak  (Quercus  lyrata),  swamp  white  oak  (Quercus 
platanoides),  cow  oak  (Quercus  michauxii),  chestnut  oak  (Quercus  prinus),  chinquapin 
oak  (Quercus  acuminata),  dwarf  chinquapin  oak  (Quercus  prinoides),  Durand  oak 
(Quercus  breviloba).  Rocky  Mountain  oak  (Quercus  undulala),  California  blue  oak 
(Quercus  douglasit),  Engelmann  oak  (Quercus  engelmanni),  Rocky  Mountain  blue  oak 
(Quercus  oUongifolia) ,  Arizona  white  oak  (Quercus  arizonica),  Toumey  oak  (Qiiercus 
toumeyi),  netleaf  oak  (Quercus  reticulata),  California  scrub  oak  (Quercus  dumosa), 
live  oak  (Quercus  mrginiana),  Emory  oak  (Quercus  emoryi). 


206  American  Forest  Trees 

reaches  eastern  Nebraska  and  eastern  Kansas,  and  runs  southward 
through  Oklahoma  to  the  Brazos  river,  Texas.  It  is  scarcein  the  northern 
parts  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Its  total  range  covers  an 
area  of  more  than  1,000,000  square  miles.  Like  all  other  important 
timber  trees,  it  has  regions  where  the  species  is  best  developed.  The 
finest  original  stands  of  white  oak  were  found  in  the  upper  Ohio  valley, 
beginning  in  Indiana.  The  timber  in  many  other  districts  was,  and  in 
some  still  is,  very  good,  such  as  southern  Michigan,  eastern  Arkansas, 
some  of  the  Appalachian  valleys  and  slopes,  and  in  certain  places  along 
the  upper  tributaries  of  streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

This  tree  is  in  the  very  front  rank  in  economic  importance,  and  it 
has  held  that  place  since  the  earliest  settlements  in  this  country.  No 
forest  tree  was  more  evenly  distributed  than  white  oak  over  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States.  It  did  not  form  pure  forests  of  large  extent, 
as  some  of  the  pines  did,  but  white  oaks  were  within  reach  of  almost 
every  part  of  the  country.  Conditions  have  greatly  changed.  The 
establishment  of  farms  where  woods  originally  occupied  the  whole 
country,  lessened  the  abundance  of  oak  long  before  lumbermen  made  it 
a  commodity;  and  since  then,  the  cutting  of  billions  of  feet  of  it  has 
depleted  or  exhausted  the  supply  in  many  regions.  Still,  white  oak  is  as 
widely  dispersed  as  ever.  It  has  not  been  completely  exterminated  in 
any  extensive  region.  White  oak  of  as  high  grade  goes  to  market  now 
as  ever  in  the  past,  but  in  smaller  amounts,  and  the  lower  grades  go  in 
proportionately  larger  quantities.  In  other  words,  prime  white  oak 
has  passed  its  best  day.  A  hundred  years  of  use  and  abuse  in  states 
west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains,  and  two  hundred  years  in  some  of  the 
regions  east,  have  reduced  original  forests  to  remnants.  But  with  all 
that,  white  oak  remains  undisputed  king  of  American  hardwoods. 

At  its  best,  white  oak  attains  a  height  of  125  feet  and  a  diameter  of 
six,  but  that  size  is  unusual.  A  diameter  of  three  feet  and  a  height  of 
100  is  above  the  average.  The  leaves  are  peculiar  in  that  they  hang  on 
the  branches  until  late  winter,  sometimes  dropping  only  in  time  to  give 
place  to  the  new  crop.  They  tiu-n  brown  after  the  first  hard  frost.  In 
some  sections  of  the  Appalachian  region  white  oak  coppice  (sprout 
growth)  is  known  as  "red  brush,"  because  of  the  adherence  of  the  brown 
leaves  dtiring  winter.  The  leaves  of  some  other  species  have  the  same 
habit. 

The  wood  of  white  oak  is  very  strong,  stiff,  heavy,  and  durable 
when  exposed  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  Scarcely  any  other  wood  which 
can  be  had  in  merchantable  quantities  equals  white  oak  in  these  qualities. 
It  rates  high  in  fuel  value,  and  6,000  pounds  of  dry  wood  when  biunied, 
leaves  about  245  pounds  of  ashes.     The  color  of  the  heartwood  is  light 


American  Forest  Trees  207 

brown;  the  sapwood  is  thin;  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  large; 
pores  large;  summerwood  broad  and  dense. 

The  medullary  rays  of  no  wood  in  this  or  any  other  country  are 
more  utilized  to  commercial  advantage  than  those  of  white  oak. 
Quarter-sawing  is  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them  out.  They  are  the 
bright  streaks,  clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  the  end  of  an  oak  log, 
radiating  from  the  center  outward  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  Many 
are  too  thin  to  be  visible  without  a  magnifying  glass.  By  quarter-saw- 
ing, the  rays  are  cut  edgewise  and  appear  as  bright  streaks  or  patches, 
often  called  "mirrors,"  on  the  surface  of  boards.  The  woodworker 
knows  how  to  finish  the  boards  and  treat  them  with  fillers  to  bring  out  the 
figures. 

White  oak  is  a  porous  wood.  Some  of  the  pores  are  large  enough  to 
be  visible  without  a  glass,  and  twenty  times  as  many  more  can  be  seen 
only  when  magnified.  The  direction  of  the  pores  is  up  and  down  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  and  they  are  seen  to  best  advantage  in  the  end  of  a 
stick,  although  they  are  always  more  or  less  visible  on  the  side  of  a 
board  when  the  cutting  is  a  little  across  the  grain.  The  pores  thus  cut 
diagonally  across  are  taken  advantage  of  by  the  finisher  who  works 
stains  and  fillers  into  them,  and  changes  their  natiual  color,  thereby 
accentuating  the  wood's  figine. 

The  possibilities  of  white  oak  are  almost  infinite.  It  is  good  for 
nearly  anything  for  which  any  wood  is  used.  It  is  not  the  best  for  every- 
thing, but  does  well  for  most.  Hickory  is  more  resilient,  ironwood  is 
stronger,  locust  more  durable,  white  pine  warps  and  checks  less;  but 
white  oak  has  so  many  good  qualities  in  a  fair  degree  that  it  can  afford 
to  fall  below  the  highest  in  some,  and  still  rank  above  competitors  on 
general  averages.  It  ranks  high  in  shipbuilding,  general  construction, 
furniture  manufacturing,  finish  and  fixtures,  the  making  of  agricultural 
implements,  car  building,  vehicle  stock,  cooperage,  and  many  more. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  American  veneer  woods.  It  is 
sawed  very  thin,  and  is  glued  upon  cores  of  other  wood,  thus  becoming 
the  covering  or  outside  part.  The  purpose  of  using  oak  veneer  instead  of 
the  solid  wood  is  twofold.  First,  it  goes  farther,  and  second,  a  well- 
built  article  with  veneer  outside  and  a  core  of  other  woods  which  stand 
well,  is  superior  to  a  solid  oak  article,  except  in  cases  where  great  strength 
is  the  object  sought,  or  where  deep  carving  is  desired. 

The  continued  use  of  white  oak  is  assured.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
seek  new  uses  for  it.  The  demand  is  as  great  as  the  supply  can  meet,  but 
the  supply  is  not  assured  for  the  distant  future.  There  will  always  be 
some  white  oak  in  the  country;  but  the  best  has  been  or  is  being  cut. 
The  tree  grows  slowly,  and  good  quarter-sawed  white  oak  cannot  be  cut 


208  American  Forest  Trees 

from  young  trees.  An  age  of  about  150  years  is  necessary.  Most 
good  white  oak  lumber  today  is  cut  from  trees  200  or  more  years  old. 
When  the  present  supply  of  venerable  oaks  has  been  exhausted,  prime 
oak  lumber  will  be  largely  a  thing  of  the  past.  Fortunately,  that  time 
has  not  yet  arrived.  About  eighty  years  are  required  to  grow  a  white 
oak  of  crosstie  size.  Those  who  will  grow  oak  for  market  in  the  future 
will  probably  not  wait  much  longer  than  eighty  years  to  cut  their  trees, 
and  the  result  will  be  a  scarcity  of  mature  trunks  for  lumber  and  veneer. 

DuRAND  Oak  {Quercus  brrviloha).  In  some  parts  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and 
Louisiana  this  tree  goes  to  the  lumber  yard  as  white  oak,  and  no  one  is  injured  by  the 
substitution,  for  it  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  and  is  of  good  color.  The  wood  weighs 
59.25  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  places  it  above  the  average  weight  of  white  oak. 
It  is  said  to  be  less  tough  than  white  oak.  The  tree  varies  greatly  in  different  parts 
of  its  range  which  extends  from  central  Alabama  across  Texas  and  into  Mexico.  It  is 
known  as  white  oak,  Te.xas  white  oak,  shin  oak,  pin  oak,  and  basket  oak.  Its  best 
development  is  in  the  eastern  part  of  its  range  where  trees  eighty  or  ninety  feet  high 
are  common ;  but  in  Texas  the  average  is  scarcely  thirty  feet  high  and  one  in  diameter. 
Westward  in  Texas  it  becomes  shrubby,  and  forms  extensive  thickets  of  brush. 

Chapman  Oak  (Quercus  chapmani)  is  put  to  little  use,  because  trunks  are  too 
small.  They  are  seldom  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  are  often  little  more  than 
shrubs.  The  tree  grows  in  the  pine  barrens  near  the  coast  from  South  Carolina  to 
Florida,  and  it  is  found  also  in  great  abundance,  but  generally  of  small  size,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Florida  from  Tampa  to  the  Apalachicola  river. 


BUR  OAK 

{Quercus  Macrocarpa) 

THIS  splendid  oak  was  named  by  Michaux,  a  French  traveler  and 
botanist  who  visited  many  parts  of  eastern  and  southeastern 
United  States  more  than  a  century  ago.  The  botanical  name  macro- 
carpa, means  "large  fruit."  The  bur  oak  bears  small  acorns  in  the 
North,  and  very  large  ones  in  the  South.  They  are  sometimes  two  inches 
long  and  one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  and  "large-fruit"  oak  is  an  appro- 
priate name  for  the  tree  in  the  South,  but  would  not  be  near  the  northern 
limit  of  its  range. 

It  is  known  in  different  regions  as  bur  oak,  mossy  cup  oak,  overcup 
oak,  scrub  oak,  and  mossy  cup  white  oak.  Bur  oak  is  a  name  suggested 
by  the  acorn  which  has  a  fringe  round  the  cup  like  a  bur.  This  is  the 
oak  which  gave  name  to  James  Fenimore  Cooper's  book,  "Oak  Openings" 
a  romance  of  early  days  in  Michigan.  Oak  openings  were  areas  where 
fires  had  killed  the  old  timber,  and  a  young  growth  had  sprouted  from 
stumps  and  roots,  or  had  sprung  up  from  seeds  buried  in  the  ground 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  fire.  Some  of  those  tracts  were  very  large,  and 
they  were  not  confined  to  any  one  state.  They  existed  in  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Dakota,  and  elsewhere.  Bur  oak,  because  it  is  a 
vigorous  species,  was  able  to  take  possession  of  such  burned  areas,  to  the 
exclusion  of  most  others. 

Few  American  oaks  have  a  wider  range.  It  extends  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Manitoba,  and  in  the  United  States  is  found  in  most  states  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  extends  farther  west  and  northwest  than 
any  other  commercial  oak  of  the  Atlantic  states.  In  a  range  of  so  great 
geographical  extent  the  bur  oak  finds  it  necessary  to  adapt  itself  to  many 
kinds  of  land.  It  prefers  low  tracts  where  water  is  sufficient  but  not 
excessive,  but  it  grows  well  in  more  elevated  situations,  provided  the 
soil  is  fertile.  It  is  not  a  poor-land  tree.  In  the  primeval  forests  it 
attained  largest  size  in  Indiana  and  Illinois.  The  largest  trees  were  from 
150  to  170  feet  high  and  four  to  seven  in  diameter.  Sizes  varied  from 
that  extreme  down  to  the  other  extreme  near  the  outskirts  of  its  range 
where  the  growth  was  stunted.  Large  quantities  of  very  fine  logs  have 
been  cut  from  trunks  from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  forty  to 
sixty  feet  to  the  limbs. 

The  leaves  of  bur  oak  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  simple  and 
alternate;  the  petioles  are  thick  with  flattened  and  enlarged  bases;  the 
leaves  are  wedge-shaped  at  the  base,  and  have  from  five  to  seven  long, 
irreguiar  lobes,  the  terminal  one  very  large  and  broad.     They  are  dark 


212  American  Forest  Trees 

green  in  color,  and  are  smooth  and  shiny  above,  silvery  white  and  pubes- 
cent below.  The  edge  of  the  leaf  is  notched  somewhat  like  chestnut,  but 
the  teeth  or  notches  are  not  so  sharp. 

The  twigs  are  provided  with  corky  wings,  or  flattened  keels  of 
bark,  along  their  sides.  Some  of  the  wings  are  an  inch  or  more  wide. 
They  are  apt  to  escape  notice  when  the  tree  is  in  leaf,  but  in  the  winter 
the  bare  twigs  look  rough  and  ragged. 

The  weight  of  bur  oak  is  approximately  the  same  as  white  oak,  and 
the  two  woods  are  much  the  same  in  strength  and  elasticity.  The 
bands  of  suramerwood  are  broad  and  dense,  and  the  springwood  is  filled 
with  large  pores.  The  medullary  rays  are  broad,  but  not  numerous  in 
comparison  with  white  oak.  They  are  sufficiently  conspicuous  to  show 
well  in  quarter-sawing. 

Bur  oak  nearly  always  goes  to  market  as  white  oak,  or  simply  as 
oak,  and  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  all  the  uses  found  for  it.  Some 
factories  which  make  furniture,  finish,  vehicles,  and  other  articles  that 
figure  in  the  country's  trade,  attempt  to  identify  the  woods  they  use. 
That  is  done  as  carefully  in  Michigan  as  anywhere  else,  though  com- 
paratively few  of  the  factories  carry  out  the  plan  even  in  that  state 
where  many  of  the  best  wood-using  establishments  of  the  country  are 
located.  In  a  report  issued  in  1912  which  gave  statistics  collected  from 
more  than  eight  hundred  Michigan  factories,  bur  oak  received  separate 
consideration.  The  uses  there  are  doubtless  representative,  and  will 
hold  throughout  the  country  wherever  bur  oak  is  fairly  abundant.  It  is 
listed  as  baseboards,  billiard  table  rims, bookcases,  clay  working  machines, 
filing  cabinets,  fumitiu-e,  hand  sleds,  hay  balers,  interior  finish,  molding, 
tinplate  boxes,  wagon  sills,  work  benches.  The  amount  of  wood  used 
in  the  state  was  nearly  900,000  feet,  according  to  the  reports;  but  it 
certainly  does  not  include  all.  What  it  does  show,  however,  is  that  bur 
oak  is  one  of  the  substantial  woods  of  that  region,  and  that  it  possesses 
properties  which  fit  it  for  many  important  places  in  the  country's 
industries. 

Bur  oak  contributes  to  the  output  of  cooper  shops.  Slack  coopers 
class  it  with  many  other  hardwoods  for  the  manufactm-e  of  barrels  for 
vegetables  and  various  other  commodities,  while  the  makers  of  barrels 
for  liquids  put  bur  oak  in  with  white  oak. 

The  future  of  bur  oak  does  not  promise  much  after  the  trees  which 
now  remain  have  been  cut.  That  does  not  mean  that  the  species  will 
become  extinct,  for  that  is  improbable ;  but  when  the  mature  trees  which 
developed  during  two  or  three  hundred  years  of  forest  conditions  have 
passed  away,  there  is  not  much  prospect  of  others  being  left  to  grow  to 
the  age  and  size  which  will  make  them  valuable  as  lumber.     Woodlot 


American  Forest  Trees  213 

owners  will  not  wait  much  longer  than  the  seventy-five  or  one  hundred 
years  required  to  grow  trees  of  crosstie  size.  Railroads  pay  good  prices 
for  this  wood,  for  it  lasts  well,  holds  spikes  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
and  is  strong  and  hard.  As  far  as  can  be  seen,  bm-  oak  will  fare  in  the 
future  about  like  white  oak ;  that  is,  few  trees  will  be  left  standing  long 
enough  to  attain  large  size,  because  it  will  pay  better  to  cut  them  while 
comparatively  small. 

California  Blue  Oak  {Quercus  douglasii)  receives  its  name  from  the  color  of 
its  foliage  in  spring  and  early  summer  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  rolling  foothills  of 
central  California.  Later  in  the  summer,  when  the  dry  season  is  on,  the  leaves  lose 
some  of  their  blue,  on  account  of  age,  but  more  from  an  accumulation  of  dust;  but 
even  then  the  form  of  the  tree,  from  its  habit  of  growing  in  open  formation  like  an  old 
apple  orchard,  presents  an  attractive  picture.  It  is  often  associated  with  the  valley 
oak,  which  is  larger  and  more  stately,  but  the  blue  oak  loses  nothing  by  the  contrast. 
It  is  occasionally  called  rock  oak,  but  for  what  reason  is  not  clear.  It  is  known,  too, 
as  mountain  white  oak,  or  simply  white  oak,  and  as  blue  oak.  Its  range  covers  central 
California  from  Mendocino  to  the  Mojave  desert,  and  from  the  immediate  coast  inland 
through  the  valleys  to  the  Sierras,  and  upward  to  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet  where  the 
tree  degenerates  into  a  shrub  which  has  neither  beauty  nor  utility.  The  species 
reaches  its  best  development  in  the  Salinas  valley  from  twenty  to  sixty  miles  from 
the  coast.  There  the  largest  trees  are  found,  and  also  some  that  have  assumed  pe- 
cuhar  forms.  In  positions  exposed  to  the  never-ceasing  sea  winds  which  sweep  up 
the  valleys,  the  blue  oaks  lie  prone  like  logs,  their  tops  pointing  away  from  the 
wind.  They  grew  in  that  unnatural  position,  having  been  pressed  flat  by  the  wind 
since  they  were  seedlings.  This  oak's  ashen  gray  bark  harmonizes  well  with  the  dry 
summer  grass  and  dull  sand  and  gravel  which  surround  it  during  the  hot  period.  The 
branches  are  often  covered  with  green-gray  lichens  which  somewhat  modify  the 
aspect  of  the  tree  under  close  inspection.  The  leaves  are  irregular  in  form.  Some 
closely  resemble  leaves  of  the  eastern  white  oak,  while  others  are  almost  or  quite 
without  lobes.  During  the  growing  season  the  acorns  are  deep  green,  but  when 
approaching  maturity  they  change  to  a  chestnut-brown.  They  vary  in  shape  as 
much  as  the  leaves.  Some  are  almost  eggshaped,  bulging  out  above  the  cup  which 
seems  too  small;  but  all  of  them  do  not  assume  that  form,  but  may  be  short  and  sym- 
metrical, or  very  long  and  slender.  Woodpeckers  store  these  acorns  in  large  numbers, 
and  they  search  out  peculiar  places  for  their  hoards.  A  knot  hole  in  the  weather- 
boarding  of  an  old  barn,  granary,  or  school  house  is  considered  ideal,  though  when  the 
acorns  are  so  disposed  of,  they  are  out  of  reach  of  the  woodpecker  forever.  Another 
method  is  to  peck  holes  just  large  enough  for  an  acorn  in  fence  posts  or  dead  tree 
trunks,  and  hammer  the  acorns  tightly  in,  small  end  first.  The  surfaces  of  dead  trees 
are  sometimes  absolutely  covered  with  such  holes,  each  with  its  acorn.  The  wood- 
pecker's purpose  is  to  wait  until  the  acorns  become  infested  with  larvae.  He  has  no 
intention  of  eating  the  acorn  itself. 

California  blue  oaks  range  in  height  from  shrubs  to  trees  of  ninety  feet,  with 
diameters  of  three  or  four  feet.  The  average  height  is  about  forty-five  and  the 
diameter  two  or  less.  The  trunk  frequently  divides  a  few  feet  from  the  ground  into 
large  limbs.  That  form  excludes  the  wood  from  sawmills,  and  only  in  rare  cases  does 
any  of  it  find  its  way  there.  The  lumber  is  of  poor  quality,  brittle,  black,  and  other- 
wise defective.  The  sapwood  is  white  and  thick.  A  cubic  foot  weighs  55.64  pounds, 
or  nearly  ten  more  than  eastern  white  oak.     It  is  weak,  and  is  low  in  elasticity.     The 


214  American  Forest  Trees 

annual  rings  are  often  nearly  invisible,  because  the  pores  are  scattered  evenly  and  do 
not  form  bands.  The  medullary  rays  are  broad,  in  the  heart  black,  in  the  sapwood 
white.  If  the  wood  were  otherwise  suitable,  pleasing  effects  might  be  produced  by 
quarter-sawing,  but  as  far  as  known,  no  attempts  have  been  made  to  do  this.  Now 
and  then  a  suitable  log  might  be  found.  The  importance  of  this  oak  lies  in  its  fuel 
value.  It  rates  above  white  oak  in  theoretical  tests,  but  it  is  heavier  in  ash,  and 
in  practice  it  hardly  measures  up  to  white  oak.  It  grows  slowly  and  is  destined  to 
disappear  as  a  source  of  fuel  supply.  Reproduction  has  nearly  ceased  in  most  parts 
of  its  range,  due  largely  to  the  perseverance  of  hogs  in  eating  the  acorns.  Cordwood 
cutters  have  stripped  the  last  tree  from  large  areas  where  much  once  grew.  This  oak 
never  forms  forests.  The  trees  seldom  grow  as  close  together  as  apple  trees  in  an 
orchard. 

Gambel  Oak  {Quercus  gambelii)  was  destined  by  nature  to  occupy  an  inferior 
place  in  the  country's  timber  resources.  It  occupies  a  region  of  stunted  vegetation 
among  the  dry  mountains  and  plateaus  of  the  Southwest,  and  except  where  it  grows 
in  better  situations  than  usual,  it  is  too  small  to  be  properly  called  a  tree.  It  is  at  its 
best  among  the  mountains  of  southeastern  Arizona  where  it  grows  in  canyons  that 
can  maintain  a  little  damp  soil.  There  it  occasionally  reaches  a  height  of  thirty  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  less.  In  most  other  parts  of  its  range  it  is  simply  a 
tangled,  sprawling  thicket  of  brush,  covering  the  dry,  rocky  mountain  ridges,  and 
along  the  bases  of  cliffs.  It  is  found  from  Colorado  to  western  Texas,  and  westward 
into  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Arizona.  The  leaves  are  small,  thick,  firm,  and  hairy, 
typical  of  desert  foliage  which  must  husband  the  scant  water  supply.  The  acorns  are 
pretty  large  for  a  tree  so  stunted,  and  they  are  tempting  bait  for  birds  and  rodents  of 
the  region.  The  acorns  are  sweet.  If  this  oak's  reproduction  depended  on  acorns 
alone  it  is  doubtful  if  it  would  hold  its  ground  in  the  face  of  perpetual  adversity ;  but  its 
roots  send  up  distorted  and  stunted  sprouts  which  cover  the  ground,  affording  hiding 
places  for  the  few  acorns  which  escape  their  hungry  enemies.  Man  puts  this  oak  to 
few  uses.  It  affords  a  pretty  good  class  of  fuel  for  camp  fires,  but  cordwood  cutters 
cannot  make  much  out  of  it.  In  rare  instances  frontier  ranches  use  a  few  of  the 
unshapely  poles  for  corral  fences,  but  only  as  a  case  of  last  resort.  The  names 
bestowed  upon  the  tree  by  those  who  know  it  best  are  uncomplimentary.  They  call 
it  shin  oak,  pin  oak,  scrub  oak,  mountain  oak,  and  Rocky  Mountain  oak. 


FORKED-LEAF  WHITE  OAK 


FORKED-LEAF  WHITE  OAK 

(Qtiercus  Lyrata) 

THE  leaf  gives  this  tree  its  name  in  the  best  part  of  its  southern 
range.  The  tree  bears  much  resemblance  to  the  bur  oak  on  the 
one  hand,  and  swamp  white  oak  on  the  other.  The  names  by  which 
it  is  known  in  different  regions  indicate  as  much. 

In  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Illinois  it  is  commonly  known  as 
overcup;  in  Alabama,  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Mis- 
souri it  is  called  the  swamp  post  oak;  the  name  water  white  oak  is 
applied  to  it  in  Mississippi  and  parts  of  South  Carolina;  swamp  white 
oak  in  Texas ;  forked-leaf  white  oak  among  lumbermen  in  several  of  the 
southern  states.  The  last  name  scarcely  describes  the  leaf,  for  no  one  is 
apt  to  notice  any  fork,  unless  his  attention  is  called  to  it.  The  fact  is, 
the  name  forked-leaf  oak  is  applied  oftener  to  the  turkey  oak  (Quercus 
caicsbcei)  than  to  this  one.  However,  since  the  ranges  of  the  two 
species  are  not  the  same,  misunderstandings  in  practice  are  not  apt  to 
arise  as  to  which  is  meant  when  the  forked  leaf  is  referred  to.  The  fact 
that  turkey  oak  belongs  in  the  black  oak  group,  ripening  its  acorns  in  two 
years,  and  this  one  is  a  white  oak  with  one  year  acorns,  is  of  fiu-ther 
assistance  in  keeping  the  species  separate. 

The  range  of  the  forked-leaf  white  oak  is  from  Maryland,  along  the 
Potomac  river  near  the  District  of  Columbia,  southward  to  parts  of 
Florida;  westward  through  the  Gulf  states  to  the  Trinity  river  in  Texas; 
throughout  Arkansas,  sections  of  Missoiu-i,  central  Tennessee,  southern 
Illinois  and  Indiana. 

It  shows  preference  for  river  swamps,  and  small  deep  depressions 
in  rich  bottom  lands  where  moisture  is  always  abundant.  It  has  never 
amounted  to  much  in  the  Atlantic  states,  and  its  best  development  is 
found  in  the  moist,  fertile  valley  of  Red  river  in  Louisiana,  and  in  certain 
parts  of  Arkansas  and  Texas.  Its  geographical  range  is  pretty  large,  but 
as  a  timber  tree  it  is  confined  to  a  comparatively  restricted  region  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  Good  trees  are  found  in  other  parts  of  its  range. 
Lumbermen  do  not  find  it  in  extensive  forests  or  pure  stands,  but  isolat- 
ed trees  or  small  groups  occur  with  other  hardwoods. 

This  species  of  oak  grows  occasionally  to  a  height  of  100  feet, 
though  its  average  is  about  seventy  feet.  It  has  a  trunk  two  to  three 
feet  in  diameter,  which  spreads  out  after  attaining  a  height  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet,  into  small,  often  pendulous  branches,  forming  a  symmetrical 
round  top.     The  branchlets  are  green,  slightly  tinged  with  red;  covered 


218  American  Forest  Trees 

with  short  hairs  when  first  appearing,  becoming  grayish  and  shiny 
during  their  first  winter,  eventually  turning  ashen  gray  or  brown. 

The  bark  is  three-quarters  or  one  inch  thick,  light  gray  in  color, 
shedding  in  thick  plates,  its  surface  being  divided  into  thin  scales.  The 
winter  buds  are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  have  light  colored 
scales.  The  staminate  flowers  grow  in  long,  slender,  hairy  spikes  from 
four  to  six  inches  long;  the  calyx  is  light  yellow  and  hairy.  The 
pistillate  flowers  are  stalked  and  are  also  covered  with  hairs. 

The  fruit  of  forked-leaf  white  oak  is  often  on  slender,  fuzzy  stems, 
sometimes  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  but  is  often  closely  attached  to  the 
twig  that  bears  it;  the  acorn  is  about  one  inch  long,  broad  at  the  base, 
light  brown  and  covered  with  short,  light  hairs,  and  usually  almost 
enthely  enclosed  in  the  deep,  spherical  cup,  which  is  bright  reddish- 
brown  on  its  inside  surface,  and  covered  on  the  outside  with  scales; 
thickened  at  the  base,  becoming  thinner  and  forming  an  irregular  edge 
at  the  margin  of  the  cup.  The  cup  often  almost  completely  envelopes 
the  acorn.  The  fruit  then  looks  somewhat  like  a  rough,  nearly  spherical 
button. 

This  oak's  leaves  are  long  and  slender,  and  are  divided  in  from  five 
to  nine  lobes.  When  the  leaves  unfold  they  are  brownish  green  and 
hairy  above  and  below;  at  maturity  they  are  thin  and  firm,  darker  green 
and  shiny  on  the  upper  surface,  silvery  or  light  green  and  hairy  below; 
from  seven  to  eight  inches  long,  one  to  four  inches  broad;  in  autumn 
turning  a  beautiful  bright  scarlet  or  vivid  orange. 

Commercially  this  wood  is  a  white  oak,  and  it  is  seldom  or  never 
sent  to  market  under  its  own  name.  There  are  no  statistics  of  cut  at  the 
mills  or  of  stand  in  the  forests.  Lumbermen  take  the  tree  when  they 
come  to  it  in  the  course  of  their  usual  operations,  but  never  go  out  of 
their  way  to  get  it.  Though  rather  large  stands  occur  in  certain  south- 
em  regions,  and  scattering  trees  are  found  in  large  areas,  the  total 
quantity  in  the  country  is  known  to  be  too  small  to  give  this  tree  an 
important  place  as  a  source  of  lumber.  Neither  is  there  expectation 
that  the  future  has  anything  in  store  for  this  particular  member  of  the 
tribe  of  oaks.  The  wood  rates  high  in  physical  properties;  is  strong  as 
white  oak,  if  not  stronger,  tough,  stiff,  hard,  and  heavy.  In  contact 
with  the  ground  it  is  very  durable.  The  heartwood  is  rich,  dark  brown, 
the  sapwood  lighter. 

It  may  be  said,  generally,  that  since  it  goes  to  market  as  white  oak, 
and  its  buyers  never  object,  it  possesses  the  essential  properties  of  that 
wood,  and  is  used  in  the  same  way  as  far  as  it  is  used  at  all. 

Arizona  White  Oak  {Quercus  arizonica)  is  the  common  and  most 
generally  distributed  white  oak  of  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona 


American  Forest  Trees  219 

where  it  covers  the  hillsides  and  occurs  in  canyons  at  altitudes  from 
5,000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  occasionally  ascends  nearly  or 
quite  to  the  summits  of  the  highest  peaks.  The  form  of  the  tree  varies 
greatly,  as  might  be  expected  from  a  range  extending  from  one  to  two 
miles  above  sea  level.  On  the  dry,  windswept  summits  the  tree  degener- 
ates into  a  shrub,  with  stiff,  harsh  branches.  Lower  down,  in  canyons 
and  in  other  situations  where  moisture  may  be  had  and  the  soil  is  fertile, 
trunks  are  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high  and  three  or  four  in  diameter;  but  these 
are  not  the  usual  sizes  even  in  the  best  of  the  tree's  range,  for  it  cannot 
be  classed  as  a  timber  tree. 

The  hardships  of  the  desert  have  stunted  it,  and  its  form  is  rough. 
It  is  important  for  fuel,  and  this  has  been  its  chief  use.  The  region 
where  it  occurs  is  thinly  settled,  and  demand  for  lumber  is  small,  but 
stockmen  build  corrals  and  fences  to  enclose  sheep  and  cattle,  and  the 
Arizona  white  oak  supplies  some  of  the  rough  poles  and  posts  for  that 
purpose.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  the  heartwood  is  almost 
black,  but  the  sapwood  is  lighter.  The  grain  and  figure  of  the  wood  are 
not  attractive,  and  what  little  may  be  sawed  into  lumber  in  the  future 
will  be  rather  low-grade.  The  branches  are  crooked  and  when  cut  into 
cordwood  the  ricks  are  so  open  that  it  is  a  common  saying  in  the  region 
that  "you  can  throw  a  dog  through."  The  wood  bums  well,  and  the 
demand  for  fuel  is  large,  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  the  country. 

The  leaves  of  this  oak  are  sometimes  slightly  lobed,  and  are  some- 
times nearly  as  smooth  as  willow  leaves.  They  are  light  red  and  covered 
with  hair  when  they  unfold  in  the  spring,  but  when  mature  they  are 
dark  green,  and  shiny.  Acorns  are  one  inch  or  less  in  length,  and 
rather  slender.  They  are  very  bitter,  and  wild  animals  are  inclined 
to  let  them  alone,  unless  pressed  by  hunger,  and  then  eat  them  sparingly. 
This  insures  good  reproduction,  provided  other  conditions  are  favorable. 
Though  cordwood  cutters  may  strip  the  large  trees  from  the  hills  and 
canyons,  scrub  growth  may  be  expected  to  continue,  particularly  on 
high  mountains,  and  in  ravines  where  roads  cannot  be  built. 

NetlEaf  Oak  {Quercus  reticulata)  will  never  attract  lumbermen  in  this  country, 
but  sometime  they  may  send  to  the  Sierra  Madre  mountains  of  Mexico  to  procure  it. 
In  that  region  it  is  a  tree  large  enough  for  lumber;  but  the  portion  of  its  range  over- 
lapping on  the  United  States  lies  in  southern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  among 
mountains  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Conditions  are  unfavorable 
and  the  netleaf  oak  shows  it  by  its  stunted  size  and  rough  form.  The  wood  is  hard, 
heavy,  dark  brown  in  color,  with  lighter  sapwood.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous 
and  very  broad.  The  tree  seldom  exceeds  forty  feet  in  height  and  one  foot  in  diam- 
eter. The  leaf  is  netted  somewhat  like  that  of  the  elm.  The  acorn  is  usually  not 
more  than  half  an  inch  in  length. 

Rocky  Mountain  Oak  {Quercus  undulata)  bears  acorns  which  may  be  eaten 
like  chestnuts,  and  not  much  more  may  be  said  for  the  tree  in  the  way  of  usefulness 


220  American  Forest  Trees 

to  man,  though  it  is  the  salvation  of  some  of  the  small  mammals  of  the  bleak  Texas 
and  New  Mexico  hills  where  there  is  little  to  eat  and  few  places  for  concealment  from 
hawks  and  other  enemies.  The  tree  is  also  called  scrub  oak  and  shin  oak.  It  grows 
in  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  western  Texas,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  Utah.  At  its  best 
it  rarely  exceeds  thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  it  often  forms  a  jungle  of 
shrubs  through  which  the  traveler  must  wade  waist  deep  or  go  miles  out  of  his  way  to 
pass  round  it.  Its  leaf  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  oaks,  and  is  notched  much  like 
the  chestnut  leaf. 

Alvord  Oak  {Ouercus  alvordiana)  is  little  known  and  will  probably  never  be  of 
much  importance.  It  grows  in  the  region  of  Tehachapi  mountains,  the  northern 
border  of  the  Mojave  desert,  in  California,  and  was  named  for  William  Alvord  of  that 
state.  The  leaf  is  toothed,  and  the  acorn  smooth.  No  record  has  been  found  of  any 
use  of  the  wood,  and  when  Sudworth  compiled  his  book,  "Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific 
Slope,"  he  was  unable  to  procure  enough  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  to  enable  him  to 
give  a  botanical  description.  It  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  scarcest  oaks 
in  the  United  States,  which  fact  gives  it  a  certain  interest. 

Sadler  Oak  (Quercus  sadleriana)  is  one  of  the  minor  oaks  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  is  popularly  and  properly  called  scrub  oak  by  those  who  encounter  it  on  high, 
dry  slopes  of  northern  California  and  southern  Oregon  mountains,  from  4,000  to 
9,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  forms  dense  thickets,  and  passes  for  an  evergreen.  Its 
leaves  remain  on  the  branches  only  thirteen  months.  The  leaves  are  toothed  like 
those  of  chestnut.  The  acorns  are  matured  in  one  season.  The  name  Sadler  oak 
was  given  it  in  honor  of  a  Scottish  botanist.  Trees  are  too  scarce  and  too  small  to 
have  much  value,  except  as  a  ground  cover. 

Brewer  Oak  {Quercus  breweri)  grows  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains  in  California,  from  Kaweah  river  northward  to  Trinity  mountains.  It  is 
often  little  more  than  a  shrub,  and  its  usefulness  to  man  lies  less  in  the  quantity  of 
wood  it  produces  than  in  the  protection  the  dense  thickets,  with  their  network  of 
roots,  afford  steep  hillsides.  Gullying  in  time  of  heavy  rain  cannot  take  place  where 
this  oak's  matted  masses  of  roots  bind  the  soil.  Sprouts  rise  freely  from  the  roots,  and 
thickets  are  reproduced  in  that  way  rather  than  from  acorns,  although  in  certain 
years  crops  of  acoms  are  bountiful.  The  trunks  are  too  small  to  make  any  kind  of 
lumber,  but  are  capable  of  supplying  considerable  quantities  of  fuel. 


POST  OAK 


POST  OAK 

(Quercus  Minor) 

POST  oak  is  the  most  common  name  for  this  tree  but  varfous  sec- 
tions of  its  range  have  given  it  their  own  names  which  probably 
have  local  significance.  The  following  names  are  in  use  in  the  localities 
denoted :  post  oak  in  the  eastern  and  Gulf  states,  Connecticut  to  Texas, 
and  in  Arkansas  and  West  Virginia;  box  white  oak  in  Rhode  Island; 
iron  oak  in  Delaware,  Mississippi  and  Nebraska;  chene  etoile  in  Quebec; 
overcup  oak  in  Florida;  white  oak  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana;  box  oak 
and  brash  oak  in  Maryland. 

Toward  the  northern  portion  of  the  range  of  this  tree  it  is  small, 
and  in  early  times  it  was  little  used  except  for  fence  posts.  Its 
diu-ability  fitted  it  for  that  use,  and  it  is  said  the  common  name  was 
due  to  that  circumstance.  The  name  iron  oak  was  used  by  shipbuild- 
ers who  sometimes  bought  small  knees  made  of  this  wood.  Baltimore 
oak  was  an  early  name  which  is  not  now  in  use.  It  was  generally 
applied  to  white  oak,  but  it  included  some  post  oak  shipped  from  the 
Chesapeake  bay  region. 

Post  oak  is  botanically  and  commercially  a  white  oak  and  is  seldom 
distinguished  from  the  true  white  oak,  Quercus  alba,  in  commerce.  It  is 
seen  at  its  best  in  the  uplands  of  the  Mississippi  basin  and  in  the  Gulf 
states  west  of  the  Mississippi,  where  it  attains  a  considerable  size.  In 
the  northeastern  states  and  in  Florida  it  is  small,  becoming  shrubby  in 
some  localities,  and  more  or  less  of  local  growth.  Limestone  uplands  or 
dry,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  seem  to  offer  the  best  conditions  for  its 
existence,  where  it  grows  in  company  with  black  jack,  red  and  white 
oak,  sassafras,  dogwood,  gums,  and  red  cedar. 

The  range  of  growth  of  post  oak  extends  from  New  Brunswick 
south  through  the  Atlantic  states  into  Florida;  west  through  the  Gulf 
states  and  throughout  the  Mississippi  river  system,  growing  west 
brokenly  to  Montana.  It  is  the  common  oak  of  central  Texas  but  in  the 
North  it  is  rather  scarce,  becoming  more  plentiful  in  the  lower  Appa- 
lachians. 

The  broad,  dense,  round-topped  crown  of  the  post  oak  with  its 
peculiar  foliage  make  it  very  noticeable  in  the  woods,  even  to  the  casual 
observer.  Its  dark  green  looks  almost  black  at  a  distance.  The  tree 
has  an  average  height  of  sixty  or  eighty  feet  and  is  about  two  feet  in 
diameter,  but  in  exceptional  cases  it  reaches  one  hundred  feet  in  height 
and  has  a  diameter  of  three  feet.  It  has  a  moderately  thick,  dark 
brown  bark  with  a  reddish  tinge  and  deep  fissures,  the  broad  ridges  being 


224  American  Forest  Trees 

covered  with  thin  scales.  On  the  branches  it  becomes  much  thinner,  and 
lighter  in  color,  the  branchlets  being  unfissured  and  glabrous  in  the 
second  year,  although  fuzzy  at  first.  They  are  rather  heavy  and 
rounded  and  terminate  in  short  round  buds  with  conspicuous  scales. 
A  noticeable  feature  of  the  tree  is  the  peculiar  branching.  The  limbs 
are  heavy  and  crooked,  separating  often,  with  wide  angles,  forming 
knees  which  when  big  enough,  have  a  commercial  value. 

When  the  tree  is  in  foliage  the  tufted  appearance  of  the  leaves 
grouped  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs  gives  it  a  distinctive  look.  They  bear 
some  resemblance  to  a  star,  and  for  that  reason  some  botanists  have 
named  the  species  stellata.  The  leaves  are  five  or  seven  inches  long 
usually,  but  in  some  cases,  especially  on  young  specimens,  they  are  ten 
or  more  inches  long.  They  are  dark,  shiny-green  and  on  a  short  petiole, 
the  veins  and  midrib  being  heavy  and  conspicuous.  The  identification 
of  these  leaves  is  easy  as  they  are  heavy  in  textiu-e,  are  bilaterally 
developed  with  a  large,  obtuse  lobe  on  each  side  about  in  the  middle, 
giving  them  a  maltese  cross  effect.  They  are  very  persistent,  staying  on 
the  tree  until  the  new  leaves  push  them  off  in  the  spring. 

The  form  of  post  oak  is  not  ideal  from  the  lumberman's  viewpoint. 
The  tree  does  not  prune  itself  well.  Straggling  limbs  adhere  to  the  trunk 
and  prevent  the  clean  bole  which  often  makes  white  oak  so  attractive. 

The  wood  weighs  52.14  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  name  iron 
oak  referred  to  the  weight  as  well  as  the  strength  of  the  wood.  It  is 
rather  difficult  to  season,  and  is  inclined  to  check  badly.  The  medullary 
rays  are  broad  and  numerous,  and  checking  is  apt  to  develop  along  the 
rays.  The  summerwood  occupies  about  half  of  the  annual  ring,  and  is 
dense  and  dark  colored.  Large  pores  are  abundant  in  the  springwood, 
and  smaller  ones  in  the  summerwood. 

Formerly  this  tree  was  known  in  some  sections  as  tiukey  oak, 
though  the  name  is  no  longer  heard,  but  is  now  applied  to  another  oak 
in  the  South.  The  acorns  are  small  enough  to  be  eaten  by  turkeys, 
and  when  those  game  birds  were  wild  in  the  woods  they  frequented 
parts  of  the  forests  where  post  oaks  grew,  and  hunters  knew  where  to 
find  them.  The  uses  of  post  oak  for  building  and  manufacturing  piu"- 
poses  are  the  same  as  for  white  oak  as  far  as  they  go,  but  post  oak  is  not 
so  extensively  employed. 

The  earliest  railroads  in  America  were  built  in  the  region  where 
post  oak  of  excellent  quality  grew,  and  it  saw  service  from  the  first  as 
crossties,  and  car  and  bridge  timbers.  It  is  still  used  for  those  purposes. 
Its  other  important  uses  are  as  furniture  material,  both  as  solid  stock 
and  veneer;  interior  finish  and  fixtures  for  offices,  banks,  and  stores; 
musical  instruments,  including  frames,  braces,  and  veneers;  baskets, 


American  Forest  Trees  225 

crates,  and  shipping  boxes;  vehicles,  particidarly  tongues,  axles,  and 
hounds  of  heavy  wagons;  flooring,  stair  work,  balusters. 

Post  oak  will  do  well  on  land  too  gravelly  and  thin  to  sustain  good 
white  oak  growth.  To  that  extent  the  two  species  are  not  competitors 
for  ground,  and  post  oak  is  assured  a  place  in  future  woodlots,  but  it 
cannot  be  expected  ever  to  equal  white  oak  in  commercial  importance, 
while  as  an  ornamental  tree  it  is  not  usually  favored  because  the  shape 
of  its  crown  is  not  altogether  pleasing.  Its  very  dark  foliage,  however, 
is  admired  by  many  and  gives  the  tree  an  individuality. 

Swamp  White  Oak  {Qucrcus  platanoides).  This  tree's  botanical 
name  means  "broadleaf  oak,"  and  that  is  a  good  description  as  far  as  it 
goes,  but  it  does  not  apply  solely  to  this  species.  The  characteristic 
which  fixes  it  best  in  the  minds  of  most  people  is  its  preference  for  low, 
wet  soil.  Its  two  common  names  are  swamp  oak  and  swamp  white  oak, 
yet  it  is  not  really  a  swamp  tree,  such  as  the  northern  white  cedar, 
southern  white  cedar,  cypress,  and  tupelo  are.  It  does  not  associate 
with  any  of  those  trees.  It  prefers  river  banks,  and  does  not  object  to  a 
good  deal  of  water  about  its  roots,  though  it  grows  nicely  in  situations 
out  of  reach  of  all  overflow,  and  often  side  by  side  with  silver  maple, 
hickory,  ash,  and  several  other  oaks.  The  leaf  resembles  that  of  chest- 
nut oak,  and  the  bark  is  somewhat  like  chestnut  oak,  but  the  wood 
passes  in  market  for  white  oak,  and  is  a  good  substitute  for  it,  though 
the  resemblance  is  not  so  close  that  one  need  be  mistaken  for  the  other. 
The  tree  averages  about  seventy  feet  high  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet, 
but  much  larger  trunks  are  common.  The  famous  "Wadsworth  oak," 
which  stood  on  the  bank  of  the  Genesee  river  in  western  New  York, 
about  a  mile  from  the  village  of  Geneseo,  was  a  swamp  white  oak.  It 
had  a  trunk  diameter  of  nine  feet,  but  it  was  not  tall  in  proportion.  It 
met  its  overthrow  by  the  undermining  of  the  river  bank  in  time  of  flood. 
That  is  a  common  fate  for  this  tree,  because  of  its  preference  for  river 
banks.  Its  range  is  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  Iowa.  It  follows  the 
mountains  to  northern  Georgia ;  and  west  of  the  Mississippi  it  grows  as 
far  south  as  Arkansas.  The  species  is  best  developed  in  western  New 
York,  northwestern  Pennsylvania,  and  along  the  southern  shores  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Michigan. 

Trees  do  not  clear  themselves  of  branches  on  their  lower  trunks 
very  early  in  life,  and  lumber  more  or  less  knotty  results.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  cut  a  fairly  large  proportion  of  clear  boards.  The  wood  is 
of  about  the  same  weight  as  white  oak,  and  is  hard,  strong,  and  tough. 
Its  color  is  light  brown,  and  the  thin  sapwood  is  hardly  distinguishable 
from  the  heart.  The  medullary  rays  are  as  large  as  those  of  white  oak, 
but  are  few.     For  that  reason,  swamp  white  oak  does  not  give  very 


226  American  Forest  Trees 

satisfactory  results  when  quarter-sawed.  The  bright  patches  are  too 
scarce.  Neither  does  it  show  as  many  of  these  rays  as  chestnut  oak. 
The  wood  is  very  porous,  but  the  large  pores  are  confined  to  the  spring- 
wood,  while  the  broad  bands  of  summerwood  are  dense.  The  contrast 
between  the  two  parts  of  annual  rings  forms  a  strong,  but  not  particular- 
ly handsome  figm-e  when  the  lumber  is  sawed  tangentially — that  is, 
from  the  side  of  the  log.  The  wood  finisher  can  improve  this  oak's 
natural  appearance  by  employing  fillers  and  stains  to  lighten  shades  or 
deepen  tints.  The  uses  of  this  oak  are  numerous.  It  is  excellent  fuel, 
and  is  rather  low  in  ash;  it  is  weaker  and  more  brittle  than  white 
oak;  but  it  is  quite  satisfactory  for  railroad  ties,  car  building,  house 
finish,  furniture,  some  parts  of  heavy  vehicles,  certain  kinds  of  cooperage, 
and  for  farm  implements. 

Rocky  Mountain  Blue  Oak  (Quercus  oblongifolia)  is  named  from  the  blue 
color  of  its  foliage,  though  what  little  lumber  is  cut  from  it,  is  bought  and  sold  as 
white  oak.  It  is  of  little  importance,  yet  in  the  almost  timberless  mountains  of  west- 
em  Texas  it  suppUes  some  of  the  urgent  wants  of  a  scattered  population.  It  bears 
willow-like  leaves  one  or  two  inches  long,  and  less  than  an  inch  wide;  but  on  vigorous 
shoots  they  are  larger.  The  acorns  are  very  small.  Trees  seldom  exceed  thirty  feet 
in  height,  and  a  diameter  of  twenty  inches;  and  often  the  trunk  is  divided  near  the 
ground  in  three  or  four  stout,  crooked  forks.  Ordinarily,  it  is  an  impossible  tree  to 
lumber,  but  sometimes  a  few  logs  find  their  way  to  sawmills  and  a  httle  passable 
lumber  is  produced.  The  wood  weighs  58  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  strong,  but 
when  it  breaks,  it  snaps  short.  The  heartwood  is  darker  than  in  most  oaks,  and  the 
sapwood  is  brown.  The  tree  is  useful  for  fuel.  Charcoal  for  local  blacksmith  shops 
is  manufactured  from  the  wood.  It  is  abundant  on  many  of  the  sterile  slopes  and 
mesas  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  but  usually  in  the  form  of  brush  about  the  heads 
of  canyons. 


cow  OAK 

{Quercus  Michauxii) 

THIS  oak's  acorns  are  remarkably  free  from  the  bitterness  due  to 
tannin  and  are  therefore  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Herbivorous 
animals  eat  them  when  they  are  to  be  had,  and  the  eagerness  with  which 
cattle  gather  them  in  the  fall  is  doubtless  the  reason  for  calling  the  tree 
cow  oak.  Hogs  and  sheep  are  as  eager  hunters  for  the  acorns  as  cattle 
are,  and  the  half-wild  swine  in  the  southern  forests  become  marketable 
during  the  two  months  of  the  acorn  season.  Children  know  the  excel- 
lency of  the  cow  oak  acorns,  and  gather  them  in  large  quantities  diuing 
the  early  weeks  of  autumn  in  the  South.  The  tree  is  widely  known  as 
basket  oak,  and  the  name  refers  to  a  prevailing  use  for  the  wood  in  early 
times,  and  a  rather  common  use  yet.  Long  before  anyone  had  made  a 
study  of  the  structure  of  this  wood,  it  was  learned  that  it  splits  nicely 
into  long,  slender  bands,  and  these  were  employed  by  basket  weavers 
for  all  sorts  of  wares  in  that  line.  Tens  of  thousands  of  baskets  were  in 
use  before  the  war  in  the  southern  cottonfields,  and  they  have  not  gone 
out  of  use  there  yet.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  millions  of  dollars  worth  of 
cotton  has  been  picked  and  "toted"  in  baskets  made  of  this  oak.  It  was 
natural,  therefore,  that  the  name  basket  oak  should  be  given  it.  Large, 
coarse  baskets  are  still  made  of  splits  of  this  wood,  and  china  and 
other  merchandise  are  packed  in  them;  while  baskets  of  finer  pattern 
and  workmanship  are  doing  service  about  the  farms  and  homes  of 
thousands  of  people. 

When  the  structure  of  wood  became  a  subject  of  study  among 
dendrologists,  the  secret  of  the  cow  oak's  adaptability  to  basket  making 
was  discovered.  The  annual  rings  of  growth  are  broad,  and  the  bands  of 
springwood  and  summerwood  are  distinct.  The  springwood  is  so 
perforated  with  large  pores  that  it  contains  comparatively  little  real 
wood  substance.  The  early  basket  maker  did  not  notice  that  but  he 
found  by  experimenting  that  the  wood  split  along  the  rings  of  growth 
into  fine  ribbons.  The  splitting  occurs  along  the  springwood.  Ribbons 
may  be  pulled  off  as  thin  as  the  rings  of  annual  growth,  that  is,  from  an 
eighth  to  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick.  These  are  the  "splits"  of  which 
baskets  are  made.  When  subjected  to  rough  usage,  such  as  being 
dragged  and  hauled  about  cornfields  and  cotton  plantations,  such  a 
basket  will  outlast  two  or  three  of  willow. 

The  tree  is  sometimes  called  swamp  white  oak,  and  swamp  chestnut 
oak.  It  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  swamp  white  oak  {Quercus 
platanoides)  and  some  people  believe  that  both  are  of  one  species,  but  of 


230  American  Forest  Trees 

slightly  different  forms.  It  is  not  surprising  that  there  should  be  a 
conflict  of  names  and  confusion  in  identification.  The  leaf  resembles 
that  of  the  chestnut  oak,  and  to  that  fact  is  due  the  belief  which  some 
hold  that  the  chief  difference  between  the  trees  is  that  the  chestnut  oak 
(Quercus  prinus)  grows  on  dry  land  and  cow  oak  in  damp  situations. 
Botanists  make  a  clear  distinction  between  cow  oak  and  all  other  species, 
though  it  closely  resembles  some  of  them  in  several  particulars. 

From  the  northern  limits  of  its  growth  in  Delaware,  where  it  is  not 
of  any  considerable  size,  it  extends  south  through  the  Atlantic  states 
and  into  Florida,  west  in  the  Gulf  states  to  the  Trinity  river  in  Texas, 
and  up  the  Mississippi  valley,  including  in  its  range  Arkansas,  eastern 
Missouri,  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  and  western  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  It  is  distinctly  of  the  South  and  may  be  considered  the  best 
southern  representative  of  the  white  oak  group.  It  does  best  in  swampy 
localities  where  it  is  found  in  company  with  water  hickory,  sweet 
magnolia,  planer  tree,  water  oak,  mllow  oak,  red  maple,  and  red  and 
black  gum. 

In  general  appearance  the  tree  gives  the  impression  of  massiveness 
and  strength,  offset  by  the  delicate,  silvery  effect  of  the  bark  and  the 
lining  of  the  foliage.  The  usual  height  is  sixty  or  eighty  feet,  but  it 
often  exceeds  a  hundred  feet,  the  bole  attaining  a  diameter  of  as  high  as 
seven  feet  and  showing  three  log  lengths  clear.  The  characteristic  light 
gray,  scaly,  white  oak  bark  covers  trunk  and  heavy  limbs,  which  rise 
at  narrow  angles,  forming  a  rounded  head  and  dividing  into  stout 
branches  and  twigs.  The  winter  buds  are  not  characteristic  of  white 
oak,  being  long  and  pointed  rather  than  rounded.  They  are  about 
a  half  inch  in  length,  scaly,  with  red  hairs  and  usually  in  threes  on  the 
ends  of  the  twigs.  The  general  texture  of  the  leaves  is  thick  and  heavy, 
their  upper  surfaces  being  dark,  lustrous  green  and  the  lower  white  and 
covered  with  hairs.  They  are  from  five  to  seven  inches  long  with 
petioles  an  inch  in  length  and  of  the  general  outline  of  the  chestnut 
leaf.     Their  rich  crimson  color  is  conspicuous  in  the  fall  after  turning. 

The  wood  of  cow  oak  is  hard,  heavy,  very  tough,  strong,  and 
durable.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  the  sapwood  darker  colored. 
It  weighs  50.10  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  not  quite  up  to  white  oak 
in  strength  and  elasticity.  In  quarter-sawing  it  does  not  equal  white 
oak,  because  the  medullary  rays,  though  broad,  are  not  regularly 
distributed,  and  the  surface  of  the  quarter-sawed  board  has  a  splotchy 
appearance,  and  it  is  not  as  easy  to  match  figures  as  with  white  oak. 

Cow  oak  is  one  of  the  most  important  hardwoods  of  the  South.  Its 
uses  are  much  the  same  as  those  for  white  oak  farther  north.  The 
custom  of  calling  it  white  oak  when  it  goes  to  market  renders  the  coUec- 


American  Forest  Trees  231 

tion  of  statistics  of  uses  difficult.  Sawmills  seldom  or  never  list  cow 
oak  in  making  reports  of  cut.  Factories  which  further  manufacture 
lumber,  after  it  leaves  the  mill,  sometimes  distinguish  between  cow  oak 
and  other  oaks.  It  has  been  found  suitable  material  in  the  South  for 
canthook  handles  where  it  takes  the  place  of  hickory  which  is  more 
expensive.  It  is  reported  for  that  use  in  considerable  quantity  in 
Louisiana.  The  handles  are  subjected  to  great  strain  and  violent 
shocks.  The  billets  are  split  to  the  proper  size,  because  if  they  are 
sawed  they  are  liable  to  contain  cross  grain  which  is  a  fatal  defect.  The 
wood  is  cut  in  dimensions  for  chair  stock  and  fumitm-e,  the  better  grades 
usually  going  to  furniture  factories.  Defective  logs,  short  lengths,  and 
odds  and  ends  may  be  worked  into  chair  stock  which  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  small  pieces.  The  making  of  large  plantation  baskets  of  this 
wood  is  still  a  fairly  large  business  in  Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  Braided 
bottoms  of  cheap  chairs  are  of  the  same  workmanship  as  baskets. 

Vehicle  makers  in  the  South  are  large  users  of  this  wood.  It  is 
employed  in  heavy  wagons  chiefly,  and  is  worked  into  many  parts, 
including  axles,  bolsters,  felloes,  hubs,  hounds,  tongues,  reaches,  spokes, 
and  bedbottoms. 

This  tree  is  classed  as  white  oak  by  coopers  who  accept  it  as  stave 
material.  The  amount  used  is  much  less  than  of  the  true  white  oak,  but 
the  exact  quantity  taken  yearly  by  barrel  makers  is  not  known  because 
statistics  do  not  list  the  different  white  oaks  separately.  Cow  oak 
rives  well  when  a  trunk  is  found  clear  of  knots.  The  trees  are  usually 
smaller  and  less  perfect  than  true  white  oak  in  the  North. 

Railroads  accept  crossties  of  this  species  and  they  give  as  long 
service  as  white  oak,  are  as  hard,  and  hold  spikes  as  well.  The  wood  is 
accepted  by  car  shops  for  use  in  repairs  and  in  new  work.  Trunks  are 
split  or  sawed  into  fence  posts  and  are  used  in  probably  larger  numbers 
than  any  other  southern  oak. 

This  tree's  future  seems  fairly  well  assiu-ed.  It  will  further  decline 
in  available  supply,  because  it  is  cut  faster  than  it  is  growing.  That  is 
the  status  of  all  the  timber  oaks  of  this  country.  This  one  has  advantage 
over  some  of  the  others  in  that  it  occupies  wet  land  which  will  not  soon 
be  in  demand  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  young  growth  will  be  left 
to  develop. 

Engelmann  Oak  (Quercus  engebnanni)  occupies  a  restricted  range  in  south- 
western California  where  it  is  generally  spoken  of  as  a  desert  tree;  but  its  rate  of 
growth  appears  to  be  much  more  rapid  than  is  usual  with  trees  in  arid  situations.  It 
occupies  a  narrow  belt  in  San  Diego  county  and  its  range  extends  into  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. It  forms  about  one-third  of  the  stand  in  Palomar  mountains,  and  is  much 
scarcer  in  the  Cuyamaca  mountains.      The  tree  seldom  attains  a  height  greater  than 


232  American  Forest  Trees 

forty  or  fifty  feet,  or  a  diameter  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  inches.  The  largest 
trees  are  of  small  value  for  lumber  and  in  rare  instances  only,  if  at  all,  do  they  go  to 
sawmills.  The  trunks  fork  and  each  branch  forks,  until  a  fairly  large  bole  near  the 
ground  is  divided  among  numerous  limbs.  The  tree's  chief  value  is  as  fuel.  It  rates 
high  as  such.  The  leaves  are  bluish-green  and  are  thick  with  sharp  points  on  their 
margins.  The  leaves  vary  greatly  in  size,  and  are  largest  on  young  shoots.  They 
remain  a  year  on  the  tree,  and  are  classed  as  evergreen.  The  acorns  ripen  in  one 
year.  This  interesting  species  was  named  for  Dr.  George  Engelmann,  whose  name 
is  borne  also  by  Engelmann  spruce.  The  wood  is  among  the  heaviest  of  the  oaks, 
exceeding  white  oak  by  more  than  twelve  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  brittle  and 
weak,  and  very  dark  brown.  The  green  wood  checks  and  warps  badly  in  seasoning. 
The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  large,  but  are  so  irregularly  dispersed  that 
quarter-sawing  promises  no  satisfactory  results,  even  if  logs  of  suitable  size  could  be 
found.  The  annual  rings  are  indistinct,  owing  to  no  clear  line  of  separation  between 
spring^vood  and  summerwood.  Pores  are  numerous,  diffuse,  and  some  of  them  large. 
The  species  is  entitled  to  recognition  only  because  it  is  found  in  a  region  where  forests 
are  scarce  and  scrubby,  and  every  trunk  has  value  as  fuel,  if  for  nothing  else.  It 
affords  a  cover  for  hills  which  otherwise  would  be  barren,  and  it  frequently  occurs  in 
fairly  dense  thickets. 


PACIFIC  POST  OAK 


PACIFIC  POST  OAK 

(Quercus  Garryana) 

DAVID  Douglas  named  this  tree  the  Garry  oak,  in  honor  of  Nicholas 
Garry  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  who  furnished  valuable 
assistance  to  botanists  and  other  explorers  of  early  times  in  the  north- 
western parts  of  America.  This  tree  is  best  developed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Puget  Sound,  the  present  state  of  Washington,  and  at  the  period 
of  explorations  in  that  region  by  Douglas,  who  was  a  Scotchman,  the 
country  was  a  sort  of  "no  man's  land."  It  was  claimed  by  both  England 
and  the  United  States,  and  Russia  had  cast  covetous  eyes  on  it  as  a 
southern  extension  of  her  Alaska  holdings.  England  at  that  time  put  a 
good  deal  of  dependence  in  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  to  get  possession 
of  and  to  hold  as  much  country  as  possible,  and  Garry's  help  given  to 
explorers  was  part  of  a  well-laid  plan  to  possess  as  much  of  the  north- 
western country  as  possible.  Douglas  doubtless  had  that  in  mind  when 
he  named  the  oak  in  honor  of  Garry.  It  was  a  witness  and  perpetual 
reminder  that  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  strong  arms  had  been 
stretched  in  that  direction. 

The  people  in  California  and  Oregon  often  speak  of  the  tree  simply 
as  white  oak,  but  it  is  sometimes  called  Oregon  white  oak,  and  more 
often  Oregon  oak  without  a  qualifying  word.  When  it  is  spoken  of  as 
western  white  oak,  which  frequently  is  the  case,  it  is  compared  with  the 
well-known  eastern  white  oak.  It  bears  more  resemblance  to  the  eastern 
post  oak  (Quercus  minor)  and  for  that  reason  it  has  been  named  Pacific 
post  oak.  The  leaves  and  twigs,  particularly  when  they  are  young, 
resemble  post  oak. 

The  northern  limit  of  the  tree's  range  crosses  southern  British 
Columbia.  It  is  found  in  the  lower  valley  of  Frazer  river  and  on  Van- 
couver island.  It  is  the  only  oak  tree  of  British  Columbia.  Its  range 
extends  southward  to  the  Santa  Cruz  mountains  in  California,  but  near 
the  southern  limit  of  its  range  it  is  found  chiefly  in  valleys  near  the  coast. 
It  is  best  developed  in  western  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  occiu-s  of 
good  size  on  dry  gravelly  slopes  of  low  hills;  and  it  ascends  the  Cascade 
mountains  to  considerable  elevations,  but  becomes  stunted  and  shrubby. 
It  is  abtmdant  in  northwestern  California. 

The  tree  has  a  height  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  feet;  sometimes  it 
attains  a  diameter  of  three  and  one-half  feet.  It  carries  a  broad  and 
compact  crown,  especially  when  the  tree  is  surrounded  by  young 
coniferous  growth  as  is  the  case  in  its  best  habitat  where  natural  pruning 
gets  rid  of  the  lower  limbs  and  causes  an  outward  and  later  a  pendulous 


236  American  Forest  Trees 

growth  of  the  upper  part.  The  limbs  are  strong  and  heavy  as  are  the 
branches  and  twigs.  The  bark  is  a  grayish-brown  with  shallow  fissures, 
the  broad  ridges  being  sometimes  broken  across  forming  square  plates 
which  are  covered  with  the  grayish  flakes  or  scales.  The  buds  are  long 
and  acute,  and  are  coated  with  a  red  fuzz.  The  leaves  are  from  four 
to  six  inches  long  and  are  bilaterally  developed,  having  seven  or  nine 
coarse  round  lobes;  the  sinuses  being  rounded  or  rather  shallow.  The 
color  is  a  dark  lustrous  green  and  the  texture  leathery. 

The  acorn  is  rather  large  being  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length  and  usually  about  half  as  broad  as  long ;  has  a  shallow  cup  covered 
with  pointed  sometimes  elongated  scales. 

This  oak  is  one  of  the  most  important  hardwoods  of  the  far  North- 
west. It  is  often  compared  with  the  eastern  white  oak,  but  its  physical 
properties  fall  below  that  species  in  some  important  particulars.  The 
two  woods  weigh  about  the  same,  but  the  eastern  species  is  stronger  and 
more  elastic,  and  is  of  better  color  and  figine.  All  oaks  season  some- 
what slowly,  but  the  Pacific  post  oak  is  hardly  up  to  the  average.  It  is 
a  common  saying  that  it  must  remain  two  years  on  the  sticks  to  fit  it  for 
the  shop,  but  that  time  may  be  shortened  in  many  instances.  Checking 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

Some  of  this  oak  is  exceedingly  tough,  and  when  carefully  sorted 
and  prepared  it  is  excellent  material  for  heavy  wagons;  but  the  best 
comes  from  young  and  comparatively  small  trees.  When  they  attain 
large  size  they  are  apt  to  become  brash.  The  tree  usually  grows  rapidly, 
and  is  not  old  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  trunk.  An  examination  of 
the  wood  shows  broad  bands  of  summerwood  and  narrow,  very  porous 
springwood.  The  medullary  rays  are  broad  and  numerous,  and  ought  to 
show  well  in  quarter-sawed  stock;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  much 
quarter-sawing  has  been  done. 

Practically  all  of  this  species  cut  in  the  United  States  is  credited  to 
Oregon  in  the  census  of  sawmill  output  in  1910.  The  cut  was  2,887,000 
feet,  and  was  produced  by  fourteen  sawmills,  while  in  Washington  only 
one  mill  reported  any  oak,  and  the  quantity  was  only  4,000  feet.  On  the 
northwest  Pacific  coast  it  comes  in  competition  with  eastern  oak  and 
also  with  Siberian  or  Japanese  oak. 

Basket  makers  put  this  wood  to  considerable  use.  Young  trees 
are  selected  on  account  of  their  toughness.  The  wood  is  either  split  in 
long,  thin  ribbons  for  basket  weaving,  or  it  is  first  made  into  veneer  and 
then  cut  in  ribbons  of  required  width.  The  largest  users  are  fm-niture 
makers,  but  boat  yards  find  it  convenient  material  and  it  takes  the  place 
of  imported  oak  for  frames,  keels,  ribs,  sills,  and  interior  finish.  It  is 
durable,  and  it  may  be  depended  upon  for  long  service  in  any  part  of  boat 


American  Forest  Trees  237 

construction.  Its  toughness  fits  it  for  ax,  hammer,  and  other  handles. 
It  is  far  inferior  to  hickory,  but  on  the  Pacific  coast  it  can  be  had  much 
cheaper.  Its  strength  and  durability  make  it  one  of  the  best  western 
woods  for  insulator  pins  for  telephone  and  telegraph  lines.  It  is 
worked  into  saddle  trees  and  stirrups. 

The  scarcity  of  woods  on  the  Pacific  coast  suitable  for  tight  cooper- 
age gives  this  oak  a  rather  important  place,  because  barrels  and  casks 
made  of  it  hold  alcoholic  liquors.  Available  statistics  do  not  show  the 
quantity  of  staves  produced  from  this  wood,  but  it  is  known  to  be  used 
for  staves  in  Oregon. 

Much  Pacific  post  oak  is  employed  as  rough  lumber  for  various 
purposes.  Railroads  buy  crossties,  hewed  or  sawed  from  small  trunks, 
and  country  bridges  are  occasionally  floored  with  thick  planks  which 
wear  well  and  offer  great  resistance  to  decay. 

The  quantity  of  this  oak  growing  in  the  Northwest  is  not  known. 
It  falls  far  below  some  of  the  softwoods  of  the  same  region,  and  the  area 
on  which  it  is  found  in  commercial  amounts  is  not  large.  It  is  holding  its 
ground  fairly  well.  Trees  bear  full  crops  of  acorns  frequently,  and  if 
they  fall  on  damp  humus  they  germinate  and  grow.  The  seedlings 
imitate  the  eastern  white  oak,  and  send  tap  roots  deep  into  the  ground, 
and  are  then  prepared  for  fortune  or  adversity.  It  happens,  however, 
that  trees  which  bear  the  most  bountiful  crops  of  acorns  do  not  stand  in 
forests  where  the  ground  is  damp  and  humus  abundant,  but  on  more 
open  ground  on  grass  covered  slopes.  Acorns  which  fall  on  sod  seldom 
germinate,  and  consequently  few  seedlings  are  to  be  seen  in  such  situa- 
tions. Open-grown  trees  are  poorly  suited  for  lumber,  on  account  of 
many  limbs  low  on  the  trunks,  but  they  grow  large  amounts  of  cordwood. 
California  Scrub  Oak  {Querctis  dumosa)  has  been  a  puzzle  to  botanists,  and 
a  hopeless  enigma  to  laymen.  Some  would  split  the  species  into  no  fewer  than  three 
species  and  three  varieties,  basing  distinctions  on  forms  of  leaves  and  acorns  and  other 
botanical  differences;  but  Sudworth,  after  a  prolonged  study  of  this  matter,  recognized 
only  one  species  and  one  variety,  but  admitted  that  "California  scrub  oak  unquestion- 
ably varies  more  than  all  other  oaks  in  the  form  and  size  of  its  leaves  and  acorns." 
He  thought  it  might  possibly  be  equalled  in  that  respect  by  Oucrcus  undulala  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Some  of  the  leaves  of  California  scrub  oak  are  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  while  others  may  be  four  inches  long.  The  edges  of 
some  leaves  are  as  briery  as  the  leaves  of  holly,  others  are  comparatively  smooth. 
The  shapes  and  sizes  of  acorns  vary  as  much  as  the  leaves.  Some  are  long  and  slender, 
others  short  and  stocky.  This  peculiar  oak  is  found  only  in  California,  but  it  shows 
a  disposition  to  advance  as  far  as  possible  into  the  sea,  for  it  has  gained  a  foothold  on 
islands  lying  off  the  California  coast,  and  it  there  finds  its  most  acceptable  habitat. 
It  reaches  its  largest  size  in  sheltered  canyons  on  the  islands,  and  attains  a  height  of 
twenty  or  twenty-five  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  less.  It  is  not  large  enough 
to  win  favor  with  lumbermen  but  in  its  scrubby  form  it  is  abundant  in  many  localities. 
It  is  scattered  over  several  thousand  square  miles,  from  nearly  sea  level  up  to  7,000 


238  American  Forest  Trees 

feet  in  the  mountains  of  southern  California.  It  is  found  scattered  through  the  coast 
range  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas  from  Mendocino  county  to  Lower  CaHfornia,  700  miles 
or  more.  It  grows  from  sprouts  and  from  acorns.  The  leaves  adhere  to  the  twigs 
thirteen  months,  and  fall  after  the  new  crop  has  appeared.  The  wood  is  light  brown, 
hard,  and  brittle.  No  use  is  made  of  it,  except  to  a  small  extent  for  fuel.  On  the 
mountains  it  grows  in  thickets  scarcely  five  feet  high,  but  they  cover  the  ground  in 
dense  jungles,  and  the  roots  go  deep  in  the  ground.  The  species  is  valuable  chiefly 
for  protection  to  steep  slopes  which  would  otherwise  be  without  much  growth  of  any 
kind.  Being  low  on  the  ground,  forest  fires  are  particularly  destructive  to  this  oak; 
but  its  ability  to  send  up  sprouts  repairs  the  damage  to  some  extent. 

Emory  Oak  {Quercus  emoryi)  grows  among  the  mountains  of  western  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  attains  a  height  from  thirty  to  seventy  feet,  and  a  diam- 
eter from  one  to  four.  The  largest  size  is  found  only  in  sheltered  canyons,  while  on  high 
mountains  and  in  exposed  situations  the  tree  degenerates  to  a  shrub.  It  always  has 
a  crop  of  leaves.  The  old  do  not  fall  until  the  new  appear.  In  shape,  the  leaves 
somewhat  resemble  those  of  box  elder.  The  acorns  ripen  from  June  to  September, 
the  exact  time  depending  upon  the  tree's  situation.  Trunks  large  enough  for  use  are 
not  scarce,  but  the  wood  is  not  of  high  class.  Stair  railing  and  balusters  have  been 
made  of  it  in  Texas,  but  the  appearance  is  rather  poor.  The  grain  is  coarse,  the  figure 
common,  the  color  unsatisfactory.  The  heart  is  very  dark,  but  the  tones  are  not 
uniform,  and  flat  surfaces,  such  as  boards  and  panels,  show  streaks  which  are  not 
sufiiciently  attractive  to  be  taken  for  figure.  Trunks  are  apt  to  be  full  of  black  knots 
which  mar  the  appearance  of  the  lumber.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and 
broad,  and  in  quarter-sawing,  the  size  and  arrangement  of  the  "mirrors"  are  all  that 
could  be  desired,  but  they  have  a  decidedly  pink  color  which  does  not  contrast  very 
well  with  the  rest  of  the  wood.  The  weight  of  this  oak  exceeds  per  cubic  foot  white 
oak,  by  more  than  ten  pounds;  but  it  has  scarcely  half  the  strength  or  half  the 
elasticity  of  white  oak.  The  springwood  is  filled  with  large  pores,  the  sutimierwood 
with  smaller  ones.  It  rates  high  as  fuel,  and  that  is  its  chief  value.  Large  quantities 
are  cut  for  cordwood.  Railroad  ties  are  made  of  it,  and  more  or  less  goes  into  mines 
as  props  and  lagging.  Stock  ranches  make  fences,  sheds,  and  corrals  of  this  oak,  and. 
live  stock  eats  the  acorns.  The  human  inhabitants  likewise  find  the  Emory  oak  acorn 
crop  a  source  of  food.  Mexicans  gather  them  in  large  quantities  and  sell  what  they 
can  spare.    The  market  for  the  acorns  is  found  in  towns  in  northwestern  Mexico. 


CHESTNUT  OAK 


CHESTNUT  OAK 

{Quercus  Prinus) 

THIS  tree  is  known  as  rock  oak  in  New  York;  as  rock  chestnut  oak 
in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island ;  as  rock  oak  and  rock  chestnut 
oak  in  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware ;  as  tanbark  oak  and  swampy  chest- 
nut oak  in  North  Carolina  and  as  rock  chestnut  oak  and  mountain  oak 
in  Alabama. 

There  is  a  pretty  general  disposition  to  call  this  tree  rock  oak. 
The  name  refers  to  the  hardness  of  the  wood,  and  is  not  confined  to  this 
species.  Other  oaks  are  also  given  that  name,  and  the  adjective  "rock" 
is  applied  to  two  or  three  species  of  elm  which  possess  wood  remarkable 
for  its  hardness.  Cedar  and  pine  are  likewise  in  the  class.  In  all  of 
these  classes  "rock"  is  employed  to  denote  hardness  of  wood.  Iron  as  an 
adjective  or  ironwood  as  a  noun  is  used  in  the  same  way  for  a  number  of 
trees.  The  name  swampy  chestnut  oak  as  applied  in  some  parts  of  the 
South  to  this  tree,  is  hardly  descriptive,  for  it  is  less  a  swamp  tree 
than  most  of  the  oaks,  though  it  does  often  grow  along  the  banks  of 
streams. 

Its  distribution  ranges  from  the  coast  of  southern  Maine  and  the 
Blue  Hills  of  eastern  Massachusetts  southward  to  Delaware  and  the 
District  of  Columbia;  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  northern 
Georgia  and  Alabama;  westward  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Champlain  and 
the  valley  of  the  Genesee  river.  New  York;  along  the  northern  shores  of 
Lake  Erie  and  to  central  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  It  is  rare  and  local 
in  New  England  and  Ontario,  but  plentiful  on  the  banks  of  the  lower 
Hudson  river  and  on  the  Appalachian  mountains  from  southern  New 
York  to  Alabama.  It  reaches  its  best  development  in  the  region  from 
West  Virginia  to  North  Carolina,  pretty  high  on  the  ridges  flanking  the 
mountain  ranges. 

Leaves  are  alternate,  from  five  to  nine  inches  long,  with  coarse  teeth 
rounded  at  the  top.  At  maturity,  they  are  thick  and  firm,  yellow- 
green  and  rather  lustrous  on  the  upper  surface,  paler  and  usually  hairy 
beneath.  In  the  autumn  before  falling,  they  turn  a  dull  orange  color  or 
rusty-brown. 

The  flowers  appear  in  May  and  are  solitary  or  paired  on  short  spurs. 
The  fruit  or  acorn  is  solitary  or  in  pairs,  one  or  two  and  one-half  inches 
long,  very  lustrous  and  of  a  bright  chestnut-brown  color.  The  acorn 
cup  is  thin,  downy-lined  and  covered  with  small  scales.  The  kernel  is 
sweet  and  edible.  The  bark  of  the  chestnut  oak  is  thin,  smooth,  purplish- 
brown  and  often  lustrous  on  yoxmg  stems  and  small  branches,  becoming 

241 


242  American  Forest  Trees 

a  thick,  dark,  reddish-brown,  or  nearly  black  on  old  trunks,  and  divided 
into  broad  rounded  ridges,  separating  on  the  siu-face  into  small,  closely 
appressed  scales.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  so  dark  in  color  and  so  deeply 
furrowed  that  it  has  often  been  mistaken  for  one  of  the  black  oak  group, 
although  its  wavy  leaf  margins  and  annual  fruit  clearly  differentiate  it 
from  those  species.  The  bark  of  the  chestnut  oak  is  thicker  and  rougher 
on  old  trunks  than  on  any  other  oak. 

The  bark  of  chestnut  oak  has  long  been  valuable  for  tanning. 
There  is  tannin  in  the  bark  of  all  oaks,  and  several  of  them  contain  it  in 
paying  quantities,  but  chestnut  oak  is  more  important  to  the  leather 
industry  than  any  other  oak.  In  richness  of  tannin  the  tanbark  oak  of 
California  occupies  as  high  a  place,  but  it  is  not  supplying  as  much 
material  as  the  eastern  tree.  Statistics  showing  the  annual  consumption 
of  tanbark  and  tanning  extracts  in  the  United  States,  do  not  list  the  oaks 
separately,  but  it  is  well  known  that  chestnut  oak  far  surpasses  all 
others  in  output.  Hemlock  bark  is  peeled  in  large  quantities,  but  tan- 
neries occasionally  mix  chestnut  oak  bark  with  it  to  lighten  the  deep 
red  color  imparted  to  leather  when  hemlock  bark  is  the  sole  material 
employed. 

Large  quantities  of  chestnut  oak  timber  have  been  destroyed  to 
procure  the  bark.  Fortunately,  it  is  a  practice  not  much  indulged  in  at 
present,  because  the  wood  now  has  value,  but  it  formerly  had  little. 
It  was  then  abandoned  in  the  forest  after  the  bark  was  peeled  and  hauled 
away.  The  same  practice  obtained  with  hemlock  years  ago.  Much 
chestnut  oak  is  still  cut  primarily  for  the  bark,  but  the  logs  are  worth 
hauling  to  sawmills,  unless  in  remote  districts. 

The  chestnut  oak  is  a  vigorous  tree  and  grows  rapidly  in  dry  soil, 
where  it  often  forms  a  great  part  of  the  forest.  It  is  not  as  large 
as  the  white  oak  or  red  oak,  but  is  a  splendid  tree,  its  bole  being  very 
symmetrical  and  holding  its  size  well.  It  grows  usually  to  a  height  of 
from  sixty  to  seventy  feet  and  sometimes  100  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
from  two  to  five  feet  and  occasionally  as  large  as  seven  feet. 

The  form  of  the  tree  shows  great  variation,  depending  upon  the 
situation  in  which  it  grows.  Trees  in  open  ground  often  divide  into 
forks  or  large  limbs,  and  the  trunks  are  short  and  of  poor  form.  Open- 
grown  trees  show  a  decided  tendency  to  develop  crooked  boles,  and 
unduly  large  branches.  No  such  objection  can  be  urged  against  it 
when  it  grows  under  forest  conditions.  Trunks  are  straight  and  are 
otherwise  of  good  form. 

The  wood  of  chestnut  oak  differs  little  from  that  of  white  oak  in 
weight,  strength,  and  stiffness.  It  is  hard,  rather  tough,  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  and  is  darker  in  color  than  white  oak.     It  has  few 


American  Forest  Trees  243 

large,  open  pores,  and  requires  less  filler  in  finishing  than  most  oaks. 
There  are  many  pores,  however,  and  those  in  the  springwood  are 
arranged  in  bands.  The  summerwood  is  broad  and  distinct,  usually 
constituting  three-fourths  of  the  annual  ring.  The  medullary  rays  are 
as  broad  and  numerous  as  in  the  best  furniture  oaks.  They  are  regularly 
arranged,  and  spaces  between  them  do  not  vary  much  in  width.  The 
wood  quarter -saws  well. 

The  wood  has  the  fault  of  checking  badly  in  seasoning,  unless 
carefully  attended  to.  In  recent  years,  these  difficulties  have  been 
largely  overcome,  both  in  air  seasoning  and  in  the  drykiln. 

Chestnut  oak  has  a  wide  range  of  uses.  It  is  classed  as  white  oak 
in  many  markets,  but  few  users  buy  it  believing  it  to  be  true  white  oak. 
It  is  coming  year  by  year  to  stand  more  on  its  own  merits.  Some 
sawmills  which  formerly  piled  it  and  sold  it  with  other  oaks,  now  keep  it 
separate,  and  some  factories  which  once  took  it  only  because  it  came 
mixed  with  other  oaks,  now  buy  it  for  special  uses,  and  make  high-class 
commodities  of  it.  One  of  these  is  mission  furniture,  which  has  become 
fashionable  in  recent  years.  Chestnut  oak  possesses  good  fuming 
properties,  and  this  constitutes  much  of  its  value  as  furniture  material. 

The  wood  is  found  in  factories  where  general  fumitm-e  is  made. 
It  is  largely  frame  material  for  furniture  though  some  of  it  is  for  outside 
finish.  It  is  employed  as  frames  in  Maryland  in  the  construction  of 
canal  boats,  and  the  annual  demand  for  that  purpose  is  about  a  quarter 
of  a  million  feet  in  that  state. 

One  of  the  most  important  places  for  chestnut  oak  is  in  the  shop 
which  makes  vehicles.  It  goes  into  sills  for  both  heavy  and  light  bodies, 
bolsters,  and  wagon  bottoms.  It  has  become  a  favorite  wagon  wood  in 
England  and  in  continental  Europe,  and  there  passes  as  white  oak, 
though  dealers  well  know  that  it  is  not  the  true  white  oak.  There  is  no 
indication  that  demand  for  it  will  lessen,  for  it  possesses  many  characters 
which  fit  it  for  vehicle  making. 

In  Michigan  more  chestnut  oak  is  reported  by  car  builders  than  by 
any  other  class  of  manufacturers,  though  wagon  makers  buy  it.  Car 
shops  use  about  220,000  feet  a  year,  and  work  it  into  hand  cars,  push 
cars,  track-laying  cars,  and  cattle  guards. 

The  large  remaining  area  of  timber  growth  in  which  chestnut  oak 
appears  is  the  Appalachian  range  through  eastern  Tennessee  and  western 
North  Carolina,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  comparatively  plentiful  in  the 
forests  of  the  Appalachian  range  will  tend  to  bring  it  more  and 
more  into  prominence  as  a  factor  in  the  making  of  wagons,  cars,  boats, 
staves,  and  furniture  as  the  other  oaks  become  scarcer. 

The  probable  future  of  chestnut  oak  is  an  interesting  problem  for 


244  American  Forest  Trees 

study.  Few  steps  have  yet  been  taken  looking  toward  providing  for 
generations  to  come.  Chestnut  oak  has  been  left  to  take  care  of  itself. 
The  trees,  produced  in  nature's  way,  have  been  ample  to  supply  all 
needs  in  the  past,  and  they  will  be  for  the  near  futiure.  Chestnut  oak 
possesses  some  advantages  over  most  of  the  other  oaks.  Large  trees 
will  grow  on  very  poor  soil,  where  most  other  oaks  are  little  more  than 
shrubs.  Trees  so  grown  are  little  more  susceptible  to  disease  than  if 
produced  in  good  soil,  though  they  develop  more  slowly  and  are  smaller. 
There  are  many  poor  flats  and  sterile  ridges  in  the  chestnut  oak's  range, 
and  they  will  produce  timber  of  fairly  good  kind,  if  the  chestnut  oaks  are 
permitted  to  have  them.  Natiu-e  gave  this  tree  facilities  for  taking 
possession.  Its  acorns  will  grow  without  being  btuied.  They  do  not 
depend  on  blue  jays  to  carry  them  to  sunny  openings  or  squirrels  to 
plant  them ;  but  they  will  sprout  where  they  fall,  whether  on  hard  gravel- 
ly soil  or  dry  leaves;  and  they  at  once  set  about  getting  the  tap  roots  of 
the  futiu-e  trees  into  the  ground.  In  many  instances  the  chestnut  oak's 
acorns  do  not  wait  to  fall  from  the  tree  before  they  sprout.  Like  the 
seed  of  the  Florida  mangrove,  they  are  often  ready  to  take  root  the 
day  they  touch  the  ground.  The  large  acorn  is  stored  with  plantfood 
which  sustains  the  growing  germ  for  some  time,  and  the  ground  must  be 
very  hard  and  exceedingly  dry  if  a  young  chestnut  oak  is  not  soon 
firmly  established,  and  good  for  two  or  three  hundred  years,  if  let  alone. 
The  forester  who  may  undertake  to  grow  chestnut  oaks  must 
exercise  great  care  in  transplanting  the  seedlings,  or  the  tap  roots  will  be 
broken  and  the  young  trees  will  die.  The  best  plan  is  to  drop  acorns  on 
the  ground  where  trees  are  expected  to  grow,  and  nature  will  do  the  rest, 
provided  birds  and  beasts  leave  the  acorns  alone. 


CHINQUAPIN  OAK 


T 


CHINQUAPIN  OAK 

(Quercus  Acuminata) 

HIS  tree  is  known  as  yellow  chestnut  oak,  chinquapin  oak,  chest- 
nut oak,  pin  oak,  yellow  oak,  scrub  oak,  dwarf  chestnut  oak,  shrub 
oak,  and  rock  oak.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  Quercus  prinus,  the 
true  chestnut  oak,  although  it  is  commonly  known  in  so  many  sections 
of  the  country  by  the  latter  name;  the  names  yellow  oak,  pin  oak, 
and  scrub  oak  are  likewise  applied  to  many  species,  so  that  the  only 
way  to  accurately  designate  members  of  this  great  family  is  to 
employ  their  botanical  names.  However,  this  species  should  always 
be  known  as  the  chinquapin  oak,  which  is  a  distinctive  term,  and  not 
applied  to  any  other. 

The  bark  of  this  tree  is  light  gray  and  is  broken  into  thin  flakes, 
silvery- white,  sometimes  slightly  tinted  with  brown,  rarely  half  an  inch 
thick.     The  branchlets  are  marked  with  pale  lenticels. 

The  leaves  of  the  chinquapin  oak  are  from  five  to  seven  inches  long, 
simple  and  alternate ;  they  have  a  taper-pointed  apex  and  blunt,  wedge- 
shaped  or  pointed  base;  are  sharply  toothed.  When  unfolding  they 
show  bright  bronze-green  above,  tinged  with  purple,  and  are  covered 
underneath  with  light  silvery  down ;  at  maturity  they  become  thick  and 
firm,  showing  greenish-yellow  on  the  upper  siu-face  and  silvery-white 
below.  The  midrib  is  conspicuous  and  the  veins  extending  outward  to 
the  points  of  the  teeth  are  well-defined.  In  autumn  the  leaves  turn 
orange  and  scarlet  and  are  very  showy.  The  leaves  are  narrow,  hardly 
two  inches  wide,  and  more  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  chestnut  than 
do  any  other  oak  leaves.  In  their  broadest  forms  they  are  also  similar 
to  those  of  the  true  chestnut  oak,  although  the  difference  in  the  quality 
and  color  of  the  bark,  and  of  the  leaves,  would  prevent  either  tree  from 
being  mistaken  for  the  other.  They  are  crowded  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  and  hang  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  their  under  surfaces 
with  every  touch  of  breeze.  This  characteristic  gives  the  chinquapin 
oak  a  peculiar  effect  of  constantly  shifting  color  which  is  one  of  its  most 
attractive  features  and  which  puts  the  observer  in  mind  of  the  trembling 
aspen,  although  the  shading  and  coloring  of  the  oak  is  much  more 
striking. 

This  tree's  range  extends  from  northern  New  York,  along  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  Hudson  river  westward  through  southern  Ontario, 
and  southward  into  parts  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas;  on  its  eastern  bound- 
ary it  extends  as  far  south  as  the  District  of  Columbia  and  along  the 
upper  Potomac;  the  growth  west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains  reaches 

247 


248  American  Forest  Trees 

into  central  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  through  Arkansas  and  the  north- 
em  portion  of  Louisiana  to  the  eastern  part  of  Oklahoma  and  parts 
of  Texas  even  to  the  canyons  of  the  Guadaloupe  mountains,  in  the  ex- 
treme western  part  of  that  state.  It  is  a  timber  tree  of  much  importance 
in  Texas,  and  in  1910  manufacturers  reported  the  use  of  1,152,000  feet 
in  that  state,  largely  for  making  furniture  and  vegetable  crates. 

The  chinquapin  oak  is  named  from  the  form  of  its  leaf.  Its 
acorn  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  nut  of  chinquapin.  Trees  average 
smaller  in  size  than  white  oak,  but  when  all  circumstances  are  favorable 
they  compare  well  with  any  of  the  other  oaks.  In  the  lower  Wabash 
valley,  trees  of  this  species  were  found  in  the  original  forests  160  feet 
high  and  four  or  five  in  diameter.  When  it  grows  in  crowded  stands  it 
develops  a  tall,  symmetrical  trunk,  clear  of  limbs;  but  it  is  shorter  in 
open  growth.     The  base  is  often  much  buttressed. 

The  wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stiff,  and  diu^able.  In 
color  the  heartwood  is  dark,  the  sapwood  lighter.  The  springwood  is 
narrow  and  filled  with  large  pores,  the  summerwood  broad  and  dense. 
Medullary  rays  are  less  numerous  and  scarcely  as  broad  as  in  chestnut 
oak,  which  this  wood  resembles.  It  checks  badly  in  drying,  both  by 
kiln  and  in  the  open  air:  but  when  properly  seasoned  it  is  an  excellent 
wood  for  most  purposes  for  which  white  oak  is  used.  It  shows  fewer 
figures  when  quarter-sawed  than  white  oak  shows,  but  it  is  satisfactory 
for  many  kinds  of  furniture,  particularly  when  finished  in  mission  style. 

Railroads  throughout  the  region  where  this  species  is  found  have 
laid  chinquapin  oak  ties  in  their  tracks  for  many  years  and  they  give  long 
service,  because  they  resist  decay  and  are  hard  enough  to  stand  the 
wear  of  the  rails.  In  early  times  in  the  Ohio  valley  it  helped  to  fence 
many  a  farm  when  the  material  for  such  fences  was  the  old  style  fence 
rail,  eleven  feet  long,  mauled  from  the  straightest,  clearest  timber 
afforded  by  the  primeval  forest.  It  had  for  companions  many  other 
oaks  which  were  abundant  there,  and  it  was  on  a  par  with  the  best 
of  them.  In  the  first  years  of  steamboating  on  the  Ohio  river,  when 
the  engines  used  wood  for  fuel,  they  provided  a  market  for  many  an 
old  rail  fence.  The  rails  were  the  best  obtainable  fuel,  and  the  chin- 
quapin oak  rails  in  the  heaps  were  carefully  looked  for  by  the  pur- 
chasers, because  they  were  rated  high  in  fuel  value.  It  is  now  known 
that  chinquapin  oak  in  combustion  develops  considerably  more  heat 
than  an  equal  quantity  of  white  oak. 

When  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  were  furnishing  coopers  with 
their  best  staves,  chmquapin  oak  was  ricked  with  white  oak,  and  no 
barrel  maker  ever  complained.  The  pores  in  the  wood  seem  large,  but 
in  old  timber  which  is  largely  heartwood,  the  pores  become  clogged  by 


American  Forest  Trees  249 

the  processes  of  nature,  and  the  wood  is  made  proof  against  leakage. 
That  is  what  gives  white  oak  its  superiority  as  stave  timber.  It  has  as 
many  pores  as  red  oak,  but  upon  close  examination  under  a  magnifying 
glass,  they  are  found  to  be  plugged,  while  red  oak's  pores  are  wide  open. 
The  result  is  that  red  oak  barrels  leak  through  the  wood ;  those  made  of 
white  oak  do  not.  Chinquapin  oak  possesses  the  same  properties,  which 
account  for  its  reputation  as  stave  material. 

The  future  for  chinquapin  oak  is  not  quite  as  promising  as  that  of 
chestnut  oak.  The  former's  choice  growing  place  is  on  rich  soil  and  in 
damp  situations.  These  happen  to  be  what  the  farmer  wants,  and  he 
will  not  leave  the  chinquapin  oak  alone  to  grow  in  nature's  method,  nor 
will  he  plant  its  acorns  in  places  where  the  trees  will  interfere  with  his 
cornfields  and  meadows.  Consequently,  the  tree  is  apt  to  receive  scant 
consideration  after  the  original  forests  have  disappeared;  while  its  poor 
cousin,  the  chestnut  oak,  will  be  left  to  make  its  way  on  sterile  ridges, 
and  may  even  receive  some  help  from  the  forester  and  woodlot  owner. 

Valley  Oak  (Quercus  lohata)  is  often  considered  to  be  the  largest  hardwood  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  Trunk  diameters  of  ten  feet  have  been  recorded,  and  heights 
more  than  100;  but  such  measurements  belong  only  to  rare  and  extraordinary  indi- 
viduals. The  average  size  of  the  tree  is  less  than  half  of  that.  The  most  famous 
tree  of  this  species  is  the  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  oak,  near  Chico,  California,  though  it  is 
not  the  largest.  It  is  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  100  high.  It  was  named  by  the 
botanist  Asa  Gray  in  1877.  This  species  is  commonly  called  California  white  oak, 
which  name  would  be  unobjectionable  if  it  were  the  only  white  oak  in  California. 
A  more  distinctive  name  is  weeping  oak,  which  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  outer 
branches.  It  is  called  swamp  oak,  but  without  good  reason,  though  the  ground  on 
which  it  grows  is  often  swampy  during  the  rainy  season.  The  name  valley  oak  is 
specially  appropriate,  since  its  favorite  habitat  is  in  the  broad  valleys  of  central 
California.  Its  range  does  not  go  outside  that  state,  neither  does  the  tree  grow 
very  high  on  the  mountains.  Its  range  begins  in  the  upper  Sacramento  valley  and 
extends  to  Tejon,  south  of  Lake  Tulare,  a  distance  north  and  south  of  about  five 
hundred  miles,  while  east  and  west  the  tree  is  found  from  the  Sierra  foothills  to  the 
sea,  150  or  200  miles.  Its  characteristic  growth  is  in  scattered  stands.  It  does  not 
form  forests  in  the  ordinary  sense.  Two  or  three  large  trees  to  the  acre  are  an  average , 
and  often  many  acres  are  wholly  missed.  The  form  of  trees,  and  the  wide  spaces 
between  them,  resemble  an  old  apple  orchard,  though  few  apple  trees  live  to  attain 
the  dimensions  of  the  valley  oak  of  ordinary  size.  The  best  stands  were  originally  in 
the  Santa  Clara  valley  and  in  the  central  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley  in  the  salt 
grass  region  north  of  Lake  Tulare  in  Kings  and  Fresno  counties.  Most  of  the  largest 
trees  were  cut  long  ago. 

The  leaves  are  lobed  like  white  oak  {Quercus  alba)  but  are  smaller,  seldom  more 
than  four  inches  long  and  two  wide.  The  acorns  are  uncommonly  long,  some  of 
them  being  two  and  a  half  inches,  sharp  pointed,  with  shallow  cups.  The  wood  ot 
this  oak  is  brash  and  breaks  easily.  It  is  far  below  good  eastern  oak  in  strength  and 
elasticity.  It  weighs  46.17  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  tree  grows  rapidly,  and  its 
wide,  clearly -defined  annual  rings  are  largely  dense  summerwood.  The  springwood 
is  perforated  with  large  pores.     The  color  of  the  wood  is  light  brown,  the  sapwood 


250  American  Forest  Trees 

lighter.  Except  as  fuel,  the  uses  found  for  valley  oak  hardly  come  up  to  what  might 
be  expected  of  a  tree  so  large.  It  is  not  difficult,  or  at  least  was  not  difficult  once,  to 
cut  logs  sixteen  feet  long  and  from  three  to  five  in  diameter.  Such  logs  ought  to 
make  good  lumber.  The  medullary  rays  indicate  that  the  wood  can  be  quarter- 
sawed  to  advantage;  yet  there  is  no  account  that  any  serious  attempt  was  ever  made 
to  convert  the  valley  oak  into  lumber.  The  wood  has  some  objectionable  properties, 
but  it  has  escaped  the  sawmill  chiefly  because  hardwood  mills  have  never  been  numer- 
ous in  California,  and  they  have  been  especially  few  in  the  regions  where  the  best 
valley  oaks  grow.  The  tree  has  been  a  great  source  of  fuel.  It  usually  divides 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the  ground  into  large,  wide-spreading  branches,  tempting 
to  the  woodchopper.  In  central  California,  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  it  was  not 
unusual  to  haul  this  cordwood  twenty-five  miles  to  market.  Stockmen  employed 
posts  and  rails  split  from  valley  oak  to  enclose  corrals  and  pens  on  the  open  plains  for 
holding  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  The  acorns  are  edible,  and  were  formerly  an 
article  of  food  for  Indians  who  gathered  them  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  fall 
and  stored  them  for  winter  in  large  baskets  which  were  secured  high  in  the  forks  of 
trees  to  be  out  of  reach  of  all  ordinary  marauders.  The  baskets  were  made  rain  proof 
by  roofing  and  wrapping  them  with  grass.  When  the  time  came  for  eating  the 
acorns,  they  were  prepared  for  use  by  hulling  them  and  then  pounding  them  into 
meal  in  stone  mortars.  The  hulling  was  done  with  the  teeth,  and  was  the  work  of 
squaws.  The  custom  of  eating  the  acorns  has  largely  ceased  with  the  passing  of  the 
wild  Indians  from  their  former  camping  places;  but  the  stone  mortars  by  hundreds 
remain  in  the  vicinity  of  former  stands  of  valley  oak. 

This  splendid  tree  is  highly  ornamental,  but  it  has  not  been  planted,  and  per- 
haps it  will  not  become  popular.  Nature  seems  to  have  confined  it  to  a  certain  climate, 
and  it  is  not  known  that  it  will  thrive  outside  of  it.  It  will  certainly  disappear  from 
many  of  the  valleys  where  the  largest  trees  once  grew.  The  land  is  being  taken  for 
fields  and  vineyards,  and  the  oaks  are  removed.  Some  will  remain  in  canyons  and 
rough  places  where  the  land  is  not  wanted,  and  one  of  the  finest  species  of  the  United 
States  will  cease  to  pass  entirely  from  earth.  The  largest  of  these  oaks  have  a  spread 
of  branches  covering  more  than  one-third  of  an  acre. 


LIVE  OAK 

(Quercus  Virginiana) 

THE  history  of  this  live  oak  is  a  reversal  of  the  history  of  almost 
every  other  important  forest  tree  of  the  United  States.  It  seems 
to  be  the  lone  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  use  of  a  certain  wood  never 
decreases  until  forced  by  scarcity.  There  was  a  time  when  hardly  any 
wood  in  this  country  was  in  greater  demand  than  this,  and  now  there  is 
hardly  one  in  less  demand.  The  decline  has  not  been  the  result  of  scar- 
city, for  there  has  never  been  a  time  when  plenty  was  not  in  sight.  A 
few  years  ago,  several  fine  live  oaks  were  cut  in  making  street  changes  in 
New  Orleans,  and  a  number  of  sound  logs,  over  three  feet  in  diameter, 
were  rolled  aside,  and  it  was  publicly  announced  that  anyone  who  would 
take  them  away  could  have  them.  No  one  took  them.  It  is  doubtful 
if  that  could  happen  with  timber  of  any  other  kind. 

The  situation  was  different  120  years  ago.  At  that  time  live  oak 
was  in  such  demand  that  the  government,  soon  after  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  became  anxious  lest  enough  could  not  be  had  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  navy  department.  The  keels  of  the  first  war  vessels 
built  by  this  government  were  about  to  be  laid,  and  the  most  necessary 
material  for  their  construction  was  live  oak.  The  vessels  were  to  be  of 
wood,  of  course;  and  their  strength  and  reliability  depended  upon  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  heavy  braces  used  in  the  lower  framework.  These 
braces  were  called  knees  and  were  crooked  at  right  angles.  They 
were  hewed  in  solid  pieces,  and  the  largest  weighed  nearly  1,000  pounds. 
No  other  wood  was  as  suitable  as  live  oak,  which  is  very  strong,  and  it 
grows  knees  in  the  form  desired.  The  crooks  produced  by  the  junction  of 
large  roots  with  the  base  of  the  trunk  were  selected,  and  shipbuilders 
with  saws,  broadaxes,  and  adzes  cut  them  in  the  desired  sizes  and  shapes. 

When  the  building  of  the  first  ships  of  the  navy  was  undertaken, 
the  alarm  was  sounded  that  live  oak  was  scarce,  and  that  speculators 
were  buying  it  to  sell  to  European  governments.  Congress  appropriated 
large  sums  of  money  and  bought  islands  and  other  lands  along  the  south 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast,  where  the  best  live  oak  grew.  In  Louisiana 
alone  the  government  bought  37,000  live  oak  trees,  as  well  as  large 
numbers  in  Florida  and  Georgia.  In  some  instances  the  land  on  which 
the  trees  stood  was  bought. 

Ship  carpenters  were  sent  from  New  England  to  hew  knees  for  the 
first  vessels  of  the  navy.  The  story  of  the  troubles  and  triumphs  of  the 
contractors  and  knee  cutters  is  an  interesting  one,  but  too  long  for  even  a 
summary  here ;  suffice  it  that  in  due  time  the  vessels  were  finished.     The 


254  American  Forest  Trees 

history  of  those  vessels  is  almost  a  history  of  the  early  United  States 
navy.  Among  their  first  duties  when  they  put  to  sea  was  to  fight 
French  warships,  when  this  country  was  about  to  get  into  trouble  with 
Napoleon.  They  then  fought  the  pirates  of  North  Africa,  and  there  one 
of  the  ships  was  biu^ed  by  its  own  men  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  "Old  Ironsides,"  another  of  the  live  oak  vessels, 
fought  fourteen  ships,  one  at  a  time,  during  the  war  of  1S12,  and 
whipped  them  all.  Another  of  the  vessels  was  less  fortunate.  It 
was  lost  in  battle,  in  which  its  commander,  Lawrence,  was  killed, 
whose  last  words  have  become  historic:  "Don't  give  up  the  ship." 
Another  came  down  to  the  Civil  war  and  was  sunk  in  Chesapeake  bay. 

The  invention  of  iron  vessels  ended  the  demand  for  live  oak  knees. 
The  government  held  its  land  where  this  timber  grew  for  a  long  time, 
but  finally  disposed  of  most  of  it.  Part  of  that  owned  in  Florida  was 
recently  incorporated  in  one  of  the  National  Forests  of  that  state. 

Live  oak  is  a  tree  of  striking  appearance.  It  prefers  the  open,  and 
when  of  large  size  its  spread  of  branches  often  is  twice  the  height  of  the 
tree.  Its  trunk  is  short,  but  massy,  and  of  enormous  strength ;  otherwise 
it  could  not  sustain  the  great  weight  of  its  heavy  branches.  Some  of  the 
largest  limbs  are  nearly  two  feet  in  diameter  where  they  leave  the  trunk, 
and  are  fifty  feet  long,  and  some  are  seventy-five  feet  in  length.  Proba- 
bly the  only  tree  in  this  country  with  a  wider  spread  of  branches  is  the 
valley  oak  of  California.  The  live  oak's  trunk  is  too  short  for  more  than 
one  sawlog,  and  that  of  moderate  length.  The  largest  specimens  may 
be  seventy  feet  high  and  six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter,  and  yet  not  good 
for  a  sixteen-foot  log.  The  enormous  roots  are  of  no  use  now.  When 
land  is  cleared  of  this  oak,  the  stumps  are  left  to  rot. 

The  range  of  live  oak  extends  4,000  miles  or  more  northeast  and 
southwest.  It  begins  on  the  coast  of  Virginia  and  ends  in  Central 
America.  It  is  found  in  Lower  California  and  in  Cuba.  In  southern 
United  States  it  sticks  pretty  closely  to  the  coastal  plains,  though  large 
trees  grow  200  or  300  feet  above  tide  level.  In  Texas  it  is  inclined 
to  rise  higher  on  the  mountains,  but  live  oak  in  Texas  seldom  meas- 
ures up  to  that  which  grows  further  east.  In  southern  Texas,  where 
the  land  is  poor  and  dry,  live  oak  degenerates  into  a  shrub.  Trees 
only  a  foot  high  sometimes  bear  acorns.  In  all  its  range  in  this  coun- 
try, it  is  known  by  but  one  English  name,  given  it  because  it  is  ever- 
green. The  leaves  remain  on  the  tree  about  thirteen  months,  follow- 
ing the  habit  of  a  number  of  other  oaks.  When  new  leaves  appear, 
the  old  ones  get  out  of  the  way. 

The  wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  tough.  In  strength  and 
stiffness  it  rates  higher  than  white  oak,  and  it  is  twelve  pounds  a  cubic 


American  Forest  Trees  255 

foot  heavier.  The  sapwood  is  light  in  color,  the  heartwood  brown, 
sometimes  quite  dark.  The  pores  in  the  sapwood  are  open,  but  many 
of  them  are  closed  in  heartwood.  The  annual  rings  are  moderately 
well  defined.  The  large  pores  are  in  the  springwood,  and  those  of  the 
summerwood  are  smaller,  but  numerous.  The  medullary  rays  are  nu- 
merous and  dark.  Measured  radially,  they  are  shorter  than  those  of 
many  other  oaks.  They  show  well  in  quarter-sawed  lumber,  but  are 
arranged  peculiarly,  and  do  not  form  large  groups  of  figures;  but  the 
wood  presents  a  rather  flecked  or  wavy  appearance.  The  general  tone 
is  dark  brown  and  very  rich.  It  takes  a  smooth  polish.  When  the 
wood  is  worked  into  spindles  and  small  articles,  and  brightly  polished,  its 
appearance  suggests  dark  polished  granite,  but  the  similitude  is  not 
sustained  under  close  examination.  Grills  composed  of  small  spindles 
and  scrollwork  are  strikingly  beautiful  if  displayed  in  light  which  does 
the  wood  justice.  Composite  panels  are  manufactured  by  joining 
narrow  strips  edge  to  edge.  Selected  pieces  of  dressed  live  oak  suggest 
Circassian  walnut,  but  would  not  pass  as  an  imitation  on  close  inspection. 
It  may  be  stated  generally  that  live  oak  is  far  from  being  a  dead,  flat 
wood,  but  is  capable  of  being  worked  for  various  effects.  Its  value  as  a 
cabinet  material  has  not  been  appreciated  in  the  past,  nor  have  its 
possibilities  been  suspected.  It  dropped  out  of  notice  when  shipbuilders 
dispensed  with  it,  and  people  seem  to  have  taken  for  granted  that  it  had 
no  value  for  anything  else.  The  form  of  the  trunks  makes  possible  the 
cutting  of  short  stock  only;  but  there  is  abundance  of  it.  It  fringes  a 
thousand  miles  of  coast.  Many  a  trunk,  short  though  it  is,  will  cut 
easily  a  thousand  feet  of  lumber.  Working  the  large  roots  in  veneer  has 
not  been  undertaken,  but  good  judges  of  veneers,  who  know  what  the 
stumps  and  roots  contain,  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  a  field  is  there 
awaiting  development. 

Published  reports  of  the  uses  of  woods  of  various  states  seldom 
mention  live  oak.  In  Texas  some  of  it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  parquet  flooring.  It  is  dark  and  contrasts  with  the  blocks  or  strips  of 
maple  or  some  other  light  wood.  It  is  turned  in  the  lathe  for  newel 
posts  for  stairs,  and  contributes  to  other  parts  of  stair  work.  In  Louisi- 
ana it  is  occasionally  found  in  shops  where  vehicles  are  made.  It  meets 
requirements  as  axles  for  heavy  wagons.  Stone  masons'  mauls  are  maae 
of  live  oak  knots.  They  stand  nearly  as  much  pounding  as  lignum- 
vitae.  More  live  oak  is  cut  for  fuel  than  for  all  other  purposes.  It 
develops  much  heat,  but  a  large  quantity  of  ashes  remains. 

The  live  oak  is  the  most  highly  valued  ornamental  tree  of  the  South, 
tHough  it  has  seldom  been  planted.  Nature  placed  these  oaks  where 
they  are  growing.     Many  an  old  southern  homestead  sits  well  back  in 


256  American  Forest  Trees 

groves  of  live  oak.  Parks  and  plazas  in  towns  have  them,  and  would 
not  part  with  them  on  any  terms.  Tallahassee,  Florida,  is  almost 
buried  under  live  oaks  which  in  earlier  years  sheltered  the  wigwams  of 
an  Indian  town.  Villages  near  the  coasts  of  both  the  Gulf  and  the 
Atlantic  in  several  southern  states  have  their  venerable  trees  large 
enough  for  half  the  people  to  find  shade  beneath  the  branches  at  one 
time.  Many  fine  stands  have  been  cut  in  recent  years  to  make  room 
for  com,  cane,  and  rice. 

Many  persons  associate  the  live  oak  with  Spanish  moss  which 
festoons  its  branches  in  the  Gulf  region.  The  moss  is  no  part  of  the  tree, 
and  apparently  draws  no  substance  from  it,  though  it  may  smother  the 
leaves  by  accumulation,  or  break  the  branches  by  its  weight.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  beard-like  growth  is  not  moss  at  all,  but  a  sort  of  pine 
apple  {^Dendropogon  uscnoidcs)  which  simply  hangs  on  the  limbs  and 
draws  its  sustenance  from  water  and  air.  It  is  found  on  other  trees, 
besides  live  oak,  and  dealers  in  Louisiana  alone  sell  half  a  million  dollars 
worth  of  it  a  year  to  upholsterers  in  all  the  principal  countries  of  the 
world. 


RED  OAK 


w 


RED  OAK* 

(Quercus  Rubra) 

HEN  a  lumberman  speaks  of  red  oak  he  may  mean  any  one  of  a 
good  many  kinds  of  trees,  but  when  a  botanist  or  forester  uses 
that  name  he  means  one  particular  species  and  no  other.  For  that 
reason  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  what  species  is  in  the  lumber- 
man's mind  when  he  speaks  of  red  oak.  It  means  more  to  him  than  a 
single  species,  depending  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  part  of  the 
country  where  he  is  doing  business.  If  he  is  in  the  Gulf  states,  and  has 
in  mind  a  tree  which  grows  there,  he  does  not  refer  to  the  tree  known  to 
botanists  as  red  oak.  He  may  mean  the  Texan  or  southern  red  oak 
(Quercus  texana),  or  the  willow  oak  {Quercus  phcllos),  or  the  yellow  oak 
{Quercus  velutina),  or  any  one  of  several  others  which  grow  in  that 
region;  but  the  typical  red  oak  does  not  grow  farther  south  than  the 
moimtains  of  northern  Georgia;  and  any  one  who  is  cutting  oak  south  or 
southwest  of  there,  is  cutting  other  than  the  true  red  oak.  That  does 
not  imply  that  he  is  handling  something  inferior,  for  very  fine  oak  grows 
there;  but  in  an  effort  to  separate  the  commercial  black  oaks  into  respec- 
tive species,  it  is  necessary  to  define  them  by  metes  and  bounds  of  ranges 
as  well  as  to  describe  them  by  characteristics  of  leaves,  acorns,  and  wood. 
The  time  will  probably  never  come  in  this  country  when  the  sawmill 
man  will  pile  each  species  of  oak  separately  in  his  yard,  and  sell  separate- 
ly; but  the  tendency  is  in  that  direction.  The  twenty-five  or  more 
black  oaks  in  this  country  all  have  some  characteristics  in  common ;  but 
they  are  by  no  means  all  valuable  alike,  or  all  useful  for  the  same 
purposes.  For  that  reason,  the  demands  of  trade  require,  and  will 
require  more  and  more  as  higher  utilization  is  reached,  that  certain 
kinds  of  red  oak  or  black  oak  be  sold  separately. 

What  lumbermen  call  red  oaks,  speaking  in  the  plural,  botanists 


*Red  oak  belongs  to  the  black  oak  group.  Other  species  usually  listed  as 
black  oaks  are  Pin  oak  (Quercus  palusiris),  Georgia  oak  (Quercus  georgiarm),  Texan 
red  oak  {Quercus  texana),  Scarlet  oak  (Quercus  coccinea).  Yellow  oak  (Quercus 
veluiina),  CaUfornia  black  oak  (Quercus  calif ornica),  Turkey  oak  (Quercus  catesbtei), 
Spanish  oak  (Quercus  digilata),  Black  Jack  oak  (Quercus  marilandica) ,  Water  oak 
{Quercus  nigra),  Willow  oak  (Querctis  phellos).  Laurel  oak  (Quercus  laurifolia),  Blue 
Jack  oak  (Quercus  brevifolia).  Shingle  oak  (Qtiercus  imbricaria),  Whiteleaf  oak 
(Qiiercus  hvpoleuca).  Highland  oak  (Quercus  wislizeni) ,  Myrtle  oak  (Quercus  myrti- 
folia),  California  live  oak  (Qxtercus  agrifolia — sometimes  classed  with  white  oaks), 
Canyon  live  oak  (Quercus  chrysolepis),  an  evergreen  oak  with  no  EngUsh  name, 
(Quercus  tomentella) ,  Price  oak  (Quercus  pricei),  Morehus  oak  (Quercus  morehus), 
Tanbark  oak  (Quercus  densiflora),  Barren  oak  (Quercus  pumUa). 


260  American  Forest  Trees 

prefer  to  call  black  oaks.  The  difference  is  only  a  difference  in  name 
for  the  same  group  of  trees.  The  general  dark  color  of  the  bark  suggests 
the  name  to  botanists,  while  the  red  tint  of  the  wood  appeals  more  to  the 
lumberman,  and  he  prefers  the  general  name  red  oaks  for  the  group. 
They  matiure  their  acorns  the  second  year,  while  the  trees  belonging  to 
the  white  oak  group  ripen  theirs  the  first  year.  There  are  other  differ- 
ences, some  of  which  are  apparent  to  the  casual  observer,  and  others  are 
seen  only  by  the  trained  eye — often  aided  by  the  microscope — of  the 
dendrologist.  Several  of  the  black  oaks  have  leaves  with  sharp  pointed 
lobes,  ending  in  bristles.  This  helps  to  separate  them  from  the  white 
oaks,  but  not  from  one  another,  for  the  true  red  oak,  the  scarlet  oak,  the 
yellow  oak,  the  pin  oak,  and  others,  have  the  sharp-pointed  lobes  on 
their  leaves;  while  the  willow  oaks  have  no  lobes  or  bristles  on  theirs, 
yet  are  as  truly  in  the  black  oak  group  as  any  of  the  others.  The  identi- 
fication of  tree  species,  particularly  when  they  are  as  much  alike  as 
some  of  the  oaks  are,  is  too  difficult  for  the  layman  if  he  undertakes  to 
carry  it  along  the  whole  line ;  but  it  is  comparatively  easy  if  confined  to 
the  leading  woods  only.  An  understanding  of  the  geographical  range 
of  a  certain  tree  often  helps  to  separate  it  from  others.  The  knowledge 
that  a  tree  does  not  grow  in  a  particular  part  of  the  country,  is  proof  at 
once  that  a  tree  in  that  region  resembling  it  must  be  something  else. 
If  that  principal  is  borne  in  mind  it  will  greatly  lessen  mistakes  in  identi- 
fying trees.  In  accounts  of  the  black  oaks  in  the  following  pages,  a 
careful  delimiting  of  ranges  will  be  attempted  in  the  case  of  each. 

The  range  of  red  oak  extends  from  Nova  Scotia  and  southern  New 
Brunswick  through  Quebec  and  along  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Huron, 
west  to  Nebraska.  It  covers  the  Ohio  valley  and  reaches  as  far  south  as 
middle  Tennessee.  It  runs  south  through  the  Atlantic  states  to  Virginia, 
while  among  the  Appalachian  mountains  the  range  is  prolonged  south- 
ward into  northern  Georgia.  That  is  the  tree's  extreme  southern  limit. 
It  reaches  its  largest  size  in  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  and 
among  the  mountain  valleys  of  West  Virginia,  and  southward  to 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  It  is  a  northern  species.  Toward  its 
southern  limit  it  meets  the  northern  part  of  the  Texan  red  oak's  range 
(Quercus  texana).  There  is  some  overlapping,  and  in  many  localities 
the  two  species  grow  side  by  side. 

The  red  oak  is  known  by  that  name  in  all  parts  of  its  range,  but  in 
some  regions  it  is  called  black  oak,  and  in  others  Spanish  oak.  The 
latter  name  properly  belongs  to  another  oak  {Quercus  digitata)  which 
touches  it  along  the  southern  border  of  its  range. 

The  average  size  of  red  oak  in  the  best  part  of  its  range  is  a  little 
under  that  of  white  oak,  but  some  specimens  are  150  feet  high  and  six 


American  Forest  Trees  261 

feet  in  diameter.  Heights  of  seventy  and  eighty  feet  are  usual,  and 
diameters  of  three  and  four  are  frequent.  The  forest  grown  tree  disposes 
of  its  lower  limbs  early  in  life,  and  develops  a  long,  smooth  trunk,  with  a 
narrow  crown.  The  bark  on  young  stems  and  on  the  upper  parts  of 
limbs  of  old  trees  is  smooth  and  light  gray.  All  leaves  do  not  have  the 
same  number  of  lobes,  and  they  are  sharp  pointed,  and  fall  early  in 
autumn. 

The  acorns  are  bitter,  and  are  regarded  as  poor  mast.  Hogs  will 
leave  them  alone  if  they  can  find  white  oak  acorns,  and  squirrels  will  do 
likewise.  The  best  red  oak  timber  grows  from  acorns,  though  stumps 
will  send  up  sprouts.  The  sprout  growth  may  become  trees  of  fairly 
large  size,  but  they  are  apt  to  decay  at  the  butt.  The  acorn-grown  tree 
is  as  free  from  defects  as  the  average  forest  tree.  Cracks  sometimes 
develop  in  the  trunk,  extending  up  and  down  many  feet.  Unless  the 
logs  are  carefully  sawed,  a  considerable  loss  occurs  where  these  cracks 
cross  the  boards.  Trunks  are  occasionally  bored  by  worms,  as  all  other 
oaks  may  be. 

Red  oak  grows  rapidly.  It  will  produce  small  sawlogs  in  the  life- 
time of  a  man.  It  is  a  favorite  tree  for  crossties,  and  railroads  have  made 
large  plantings  for  that  purpose.  The  ties  do  not  last  well  in  their 
natural  state,  but  they  are  easy  to  treat  with  preservatives  by  which 
several  years  are  added  to  their  period  of  service.  It  has  been  a  favorite 
tree  with  European  planters  for  the  past  two  hundred  years;  but  the 
most  of  the  plantings  beyond  the  sea  have  been  for  ornament  in  parks 
and  private  grounds. 

The  principal  interest  in  red  oak  in  this  country  is  due  to  its  value 
for  lumber.  That  interest  is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  Some  red 
oak  has  always  been  used  for  rails,  clapboards,  slack  cooperage,  and 
rough  lumber;  but  while  white  oak  was  cheap  and  plentiful,  sawmill  men 
usually  let  red  oak  alone.  It  had  a  poor  reputation,  which  is  now  known 
to  have  been  undeserved. 

Red  oak  is  lighter  than  white  oak,  and  it  is  generally  regarded  as 
possessing  less  strength  and  stiffness.  The  wide  rings  of  annual  growth, 
and  the  distinct  layers  of  springwood  and  summerwood,  give  the  basis 
for  good  figmre.  To  this  may  be  added  broad  and  regular  medullary 
rays  which  are  nicely  brought  out  by  quarter-sawing.  The  tone  of  the 
wood  is  red,  to  which  fact  the  name  red  oak  is  due.  It  has  large,  open 
pores.  A  magnifying  glass  is  not  required  to  see  them  in  the  end  of  a 
stick.  It  is  said  that  smoke  may  be  blown  through  a  piece  of  red  oak  a 
foot  in  length.  These  open  pores  disqualify  the  wood  for  use  in  tight 
cooperage.  Liquids  will  leak  through  the  pores.  Statistics  of  sawmill 
output  in  this  country  do  not  separate  the  white  and  black  oaks,  and  the 


262 


American  Forest  Trees 


quantity  of  lumber  sawed  from  any  one  species  is  not  known.  Manu- 
facturers are  disposed  to  separate  them.  Some  furniture  makers  use 
red  oak  exclusively  for  certain  purposes,  and  the  same  rule  is  followed 
by  makers  of  other  commodities. 


TEXAN  RED  OAK 


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Texan  Red  Oak 


TEXAN  RED  OAK 

(Quercus  Texana) 

THE  line  between  red  oak  {Qtcercus  rubra)  and  Texan  red  oak  is 
closely  drawn  by  botanists,  but  lumbermen  do  not  recognize 
much  difference  except  toward  the  extreme  ranges  of  each.  Some  call 
one  simply  red  oak  and  the  other  southern  red  oak,  but  that  leaves 
doubtful  the  timber  on  a  large  area  occupied  by  both  species.  Their 
ranges  overlap  two  or  three  hundred  miles  in  the  Ohio  valley  and  on  the 
southern  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  river  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  A 
large  amount  of  red  oak  from  that  region  goes  to  market,  and  no  one 
knows,  and  few  care,  whether  it  is  of  the  northern  or  southern  species. 
It  is  usually  a  mixtiu-e  of  both.  But  outside  of  the  common  zone  where 
both  trees  grow,  the  woods  of  the  two  are  kept  fairly  well  separate. 
Thirty  years  ago  Texan  red  oak  received  slight  recognition  from 
botanists.  When  Charles  S.  Sargent  compiled  in  1S80  a  volume  of  over 
600  pages,  "Forest  Trees  of  North  America,"  for  the  United  States 
government,  and  which  was  pubHshed  as  volume  9  of  the  Tenth  Census, 
he  did  not  so  much  as  accord  this  tree  the  dignity  of  a  species,  but 
called  it  a  variety  of  the  common  red  oak.  Its  range  and  its  great 
importance  were  little  understood  at  that  time.  Sargent  thus  described 
its  range:  "Western  Texas,  valley  of  the  Colorado  river  with  the  species 
and  replacing  it  south  and  west,  extending  to  the  valley  of  the  Neuces 
river  and  the  Limpia  mountains." 

Compare  that  restricted  range  with  that  given  by  the  same 
author  twenty-five  years  later  in  his  "Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North 
America."  He  gives  it  thus:  "Northeastern  Iowa  and  central  Illinois, 
through  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana  and  western  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  to  tha  valley  of  the  Apalachicola  river,  Florida,  northern 
Georgia,  central  South  Carolina,  and  the  coast  plains  of  North  Carolina, 
and  through  southern  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  to  the  moun- 
tains of  western  Texas;  most  abundant  and  of  its  largest  size  on  the 
low  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  often  forming  a  considerable 
part  of  lowland  forests;  less  abundant  in  the  eastern  Gulf  states;  in 
western  Texas  on  low  limestone  hills  and  on  bottom  lands  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  streams." 

This  quotation  is  given  in  full  because  it  shows  how  scientific  men 
change  their  opinions  to  conform  to  new  evidence.  The  range  of  that 
particular  species  was  as  wide  in  1880  as  in  1905,  but  botanists  had  not 
yet  worked  it  out.  Thus  knowledge  increases  constantly,  and  year  by 
year  the  resources  of  American  forests  are  better  understood.     In  this 

265 


268  American  Forest  Irees 

instance,  what  in  1880  was  supposed  to  be  a  rather  insignificant  variety, 
occupying  a  restricted  area  in  Texas,  was  found  by  1905  to  be  a  separate 
species,  covering  sixteen  states  in  whole  or  in  part.  Similar  progress 
concerning  the  forests  has  been  made  all  over  the  country,  not  only  by 
botanists  but  by  lumbermen.  Trees  which  were  formerly  considered  so 
nearly  alike  that  no  distinctions  were  made,  are  now  recognized  to  be 
quite  different. 

The  Texan  red  oak  is  frequently  called  spotted  oak.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  bark  suggests  the  name.  Large,  irregular,  whitish  patches 
cover  the  trunks.  That  peculiarity  is  not  noticeable  everywhere  and  on 
all  trees,  but  is  common  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  tree  is  some- 
times known  as  Spanish  oak  in  the  southwestern  part  of  its  range,  but 
the  name  is  ill-advised,  for  the  true  Spanish  oak  (Qucrcus  digiiata)  occiurs 
in  the  same  region.  The  most  usual  name  for  this  species,  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  its  range,  is  simply  red  oak. 

The  Texan  red  oak  varies  greatly  in  size  of  trees,  as  is  natural  in  so 
wide  a  geographical  range.  Trees  have  been  reported  200  feet  high  and 
eight  feet  in  diameter;  but  sizes  like  that  are  extraordinary  and  attempts 
to  locate  anything  approaching  them  at  this  day  have  not  been  success- 
ful. The  average  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  is  eighty  or  ninety  feet 
in  height,  and  two  or  three  in  diameter.  In  Texas  this  size  is  seldom 
reached,  the  average  not  much  exceeding  half  of  it. 

The  leaves  of  Texan  red  oak  are  about  half  the  size  of  those  of  the 
northern  species.  That  alone  will  not  serve  to  separate  them,  because 
of  such  great  variation.  It  applies  only  to  averages.  The  southern 
trees*  leaves  are  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  two  to  five  wide;  the 
northern  species  bears  leaves  from  five  to  nine  inches  long  and  four  to  six 
wide.  The  acorns  of  the  two  species  do  not  show  so  much  difference  in 
size.  The  states  which  use  Texan  red  oak  in  largest  amounts  are 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas,  though  some  of 
this  wood  finds  its  way  to  northern  markets  where  it  passes  as  red  oak 
without  any  questions.  That  condition  renders  very  difficult  the  task  of 
separating  the  woods.  It  is  not  so  difficult  further  south  where  the  true 
red  oak  is  seldom  seen.  Shipments  go  north,  not  south.  The  two  red 
oaks  mingle  in  the  lumber  yards  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  but  seldom 
south  of  the  Tennessee  river. 

Investigations  made  by  the  Forest  Service  of  the  utilization  of 
woods  in  various  states  show  that  factories  report  the  annual  use  of 
Texan  red  oak  as  follows :  Louisiana  1,777,000  feet,  Mississippi  2,400,000, 
Texas  2,814,000,  Alabama  5,500,000,  and  Arkansas  39,301,000.  This 
does  not  include  lumber  or  other  forest  products  used  in  the  rough,  or 
lumber  shipped  out  of  the  respective  states. 


American  Forest  Trees  267 

Texan  red  oak  is  heavier  than  its  northern  relative,  hard,  light, 
reddish-brown,  much  of  it  of  rapid  growth,  with  wide,  clearly  defined 
annual  rings.  The  medullary  rays  are  prominent,  and  show  well  in 
quarter-sawing.  The  best  of  the  wood  is  as  strong  as  red  oak,  and  com- 
pares favorably  with  it  in  physical  properties. 

One  of  the  most  exacting  uses  of  wood  is  for  fixtures,  such  as 
counters  in  stores,  bars  in  saloons,  partitions  in  banks  and  counting 
rooms,  and  standing  desks  in  offices.  Extra  wide  and  long  pieces  are 
requu-ed,  and  they  must  show  satisfactory  figure,  and  be  finished  to 
harmonize  with  the  interior  of  the  room  where  they  are  placed.  Texan 
red  oak  is  selected  by  builders  in  many  southern  cities  for  that  class  of 
fixtm-es,  and  it  meets  the  requirements.  It  is  used  also  for  interior 
finish  and  furniture,  and  stair  work. 

Like  most  members  of  the  black  oak  group,  the  wood  is  inclined 
to  rot  quickly  in  damp  situations,  but  it  measiu-es  well  up  to  the  average 
of  the  group  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  often  employed  in  the  South  as 
bridge  material,  particularly  as  flooring  for  wagon  bridges,  where  the 
wood's  hardness  is  its  chief  recommendation.  Much  is  converted  into 
flooring  for  halls,  houses,  and  factories. 

The  available  supply  of  this  valuable  wood  in  the  forests  of  the 
South  is  not  known,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  exists  in  larger 
quantities  than  any  other  species  of  oak  within  its  range.  Perhaps  in 
total  quantity  it  exceeds  red  oak  (Querciis  rubra)  in  the  whole  United 
States.  It  is  quite  generally  distributed  over  an  area  exceeding  300,000 
square  miles,  and  toward  the  western  part,  it  is  the  prevailing  oak.  The 
future  of  this  oak  is  assured.  It  is  now  cut  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  doubtless 
the  annual  growth  falls  short  of  the  yearly  demand;  but  it  occurs  in  a 
range  so  extensive  that  scarcity  will  not  come  for  a  long  period.  If  the 
time  ever  comes  in  the  South  when  planted  timber  must  be  depended 
upon  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people,  this  oak  will  fill  an  important  place 
in  woodlots.  It  does  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  willow  oak,  but  its  range  is 
more  extensive,  and  it  possesses  certain  desirable  properties  not  found 
in  willow  oak.  The  acorns  are  rather  poor  mast,  and  this  is  in  the  tree's 
favor,  for  the  seed  will  be  left  to  grow  instead  of  being  devoured  by  hogs 
and  small  animals  of  the  woods.  In  that  respect  it  has  an  advantage 
over  cow  oak  and  the  other  white  oaks  which  occupy  parts  of  its 
range.  Their  acorns  are  sought  as  food  by  domestic  and  wild  animals. 
Texan  red  oak  prunes  itself  well  when  it  grows  in  close  stands,  but  is  low 
and  limby  when  it  occupies  open  ground.  The  trunks  vary  in  form,  but 
are  inclined  to  enlarge  at  the  base,  particularly  when  they  grow  in  low, 
damp  situations,  as  many  of  the  best  do  in  the  South. 

Georgia  Oak  {Quercus  georgiana)  is  one  of  the  minor  oaks  of  the  South  and 


268 


American  Forest  Trees 


has  not  been  found  outside  of  Georgia.  It  grows  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  on 
Stone  mountain  and  on  a  few  other  granite  hills.  Whether  the  species  originated 
there  and  was  never  able  to  work  its  way  down  to  the  more  congenial  valleys  below,  or 
whether  it  once  grew  lower  down  and  was  crowded  to  its  last  retreat  by  other  species, 
is  not  known.  But  an  interest  attaches  to  it  from  the  very  fact  that  its  range  is  so 
restricted  and  that  its  habitat  is  on  the  sterile  summits.  Lumbermen  care  nothing 
about  this  tree.  Few  of  them  ever  saw  it  or  heard  of  it.  The  trunk  is  small,  the 
acorns  only  from  one-third  to  half  an  inch  long,  and  the  leaves  are  of  a  form  midway 
between  those  of  pin  oak  and  turkey  oak.  The  characters  of  the  wood  have  not  been 
reported,  but  since  there  is  not  enough  of  it  to  have  any  commercial  value,  the  matter 
is  not  very  important. 


YELLOW  OAK 


YELLOW  OAK 

(Querais  Velutina) 

THIS  tree  is  known  as  black  oak  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  Ontario;  quercitron  oak 
in  Delaware,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Kansas  and  Minnesota;  yellow 
oak  in  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Illinois,  Texas,  Kansas  and  Minnesota; 
tanbark  oak  in  Illinois;  yellow-bark  oak  in  Minnesota  and  Rhode 
Island;  spotted  oak  in  Missotui;  dyer's  oak  in  Texas;  and  yellow  butt  oak 
in  Mississippi. 

Those  who  call  this  tree  black  oak  have  in  mind  the  bark  which  is 
usually  quite  dark,  though  all  members  of  this  species  do  not  present  the 
same  appearance  in  that  respect.  Some  tnmks  are  gray,  and  in  color  do 
not  greatly  differ  from  white  oaks,  but  would  hardly  be  mistaken  for 
them.  Tanbark  oak,  a  name  occasionally  given  to  this  tree,  is  not 
applied  in  the  region  where  chestnut  oak  grows,  because  it  is  much 
inferior  to  chestnut  oak  as  tanning  material.  It  is  not  only  poorer  in 
tannin,  but  the  coloring  matter  associated  with  the  inner  bark  is  trouble- 
some to  the  tanner  who  is  compelled  to  remove  it  or  neutralize  it  unless 
he  wants  his  leather  given  a  yellow  tone.  Dyer's  oak  is  a  name  which 
refers  to  the  value  of  the  bark  for  coloring  purposes.  The  botanical 
name  velutina  refers  to  the  velvety  texture  of  the  inner  bark. 

This  oak  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  identify.  The  inner  layer  of  the 
bark  is  yellow.  The  point  of  a  knife  easily  reaches  it ;  cutting  through  a 
deep  crack  in  the  bark,  and  no  mistake  is  possible,  for  no  other  oak  has 
the  yellow  layer  of  bark.  The  tree  may  be  identified  by  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruit,  but  the  process  is  not  always  easy,  for  other  members  of  the 
black  oak  group  bear  more  or  less  resemblance  to  this  one. 

The  yellow  oak's  range  extends  over  nearly  or  quite  a  million  square 
miles.  It  exceeds  the  limits  of  most  oaks  in  its  geographical  extension. 
It  endures  severe  winters  and  hot  summers.  The  northern  limit  of  its 
range  lies  in  Maine ;  it  grows  westward  across  southern  Canada  to  Minne- 
sota; it  extends  two  hundred  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi  into  eastern 
Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  follows  that  meridian  south  into  Texas. 
It  reaches  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  is  found  in 
many  localities  in  all  the  southern  states,  and  along  the  foothills  of  the 
Appalachian  ranges.  It  attains  its  largest  size  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley. 
The  average  height  is  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  its  diameter  two  or 


272  American  Forest  Trees 

three  feet.  In  some  localities  the  trees  are  scrubby  and  produce  little 
merchantable  timber. 

The  growth  rings  are  only  moderately  wide  in  the  typical  yellow 
oak ;  the  ring  is  divided  nearly  evenly  between  springwood  and  summer- 
wood.  The  former  contains  two  or  three  rows  of  large,  open  pores. 
The  medullary  rays  are  fewer  and  smaller  than  those  commonly  found  in 
oaks.  A  general  average  of  the  properties  of  the  wood  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  give,  because  of  remarkable  variation  in  trees  which  grow 
under  different  conditions.  In  some  instances,  where  the  soil  is  fertile 
and  climate  favorable,  the  yellow  oak  produces  a  large,  clear  trunk, 
with  sound  wood,  of  good  color,  and  equal  to  that  of  red  oak;  but  the 
reverse  is  often  the  case — trunks  are  small  and  rough,  wood  hard  and 
brittle,  color  not  satisfactory,  and  strength  not  up  to  standard.  Some- 
times first  class  yellow  oak  passes  without  question  as  good  red  oak 
in  the  finish  and  furniture  business,  but  that  is  not  its  usual  course. 
Well  developed  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  bright  brown,  tinged 
with  red,  with  thin,  lighter  colored  sapwood.  Its  weight  is  43.9  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

The  uses  of  yellow  oak  follow  red  oak  pretty  closely,  but  are  not  so 
extensive.  Figures  cannot  be  given  to  show  the  total  annual  cut  of 
yellow  oak,  but  the  output  is  likely  much  below  red  oak,  though  it  is 
found  over  a  wider  area,  and  some  of  it  gets  into  the  lumber  yards  in  all 
regions  where  it  grows.  It  is  made  into  furniture  from  Maine  to 
Louisiana.  In  cheaper  grades  of  furniture,  it  may  be  the  outside  ma- 
terial, but  its  place  is  usually  as  frame  stock,  to  give  strength,  but  is  not 
visible  in  the  finished  article.  An  exception  to  this  is  found  in  chairs 
where  yellow  oak  is  one  of  several  species  which  go  regularly  to  the  saw- 
mills which  cut  chair  stock.  Massachusetts  snow  plow  makers  use  it, 
but  of  course  it  fills  no  such  place  in  the  South.  In  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas  it  is  bought  by  manufacturers  of  agricultural  machinery.  It 
is  worked  into  cotton  gins  in  Mississippi.  Some  extra  fine  stands  of  this 
oak  occur  in  the  Delta  region  of  Mississippi.  Frames  of  freight  cars  are 
made  of  it  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and  warehouse  and  depot  floors  are 
occasionally  laid  of  this  lumber.  It  is  floor  material  in  Michigan  also, 
but  that  is  of  a  better  class  than  is  required  for  warehouses.  It  is  not 
infrequently  sold  as  red  oak  for  flooring  and  interior  finish.  Throughout 
the  whole  extent  of  yellow  oak's  range  it  finds  its  way  to  wagon  shops. 
It  is  less  tough  than  white  oak,  but  in  many  places,  such  as  bolsters, 
sandboards,  and  hounds,  it  serves  as  well.  Warehouse  trucks  and  push 
cars  are  of  this  wood  in  many  instances. 

Slack  coopers  convert  this  wood  into  their  wares  in  many  regions. 
The  pores  are  too  open  to  permit  its  use  as  tight  cooperage,  where 


American  Forest  Trees  273 

liquids  are  to  be  contained,  but  for  barrels  and  kegs  of  many  kinds,  as 
well  as  for  boxes,  baskets,  and  crates,  it  meets  all  requirements.  It  is 
good  fuel.  Many  burners  of  brick  and  pottery  show  it  preference,  and 
charcoal  burners  make  a  clean  sweep  of  it  when  it  occurs  in  the  course 
of  their  operations;  though  when  it  is  desirable  to  save  the  by-products 
of  charcoal  kilns  or  retorts,  yellow  oak  is  considered  less  valuable  than 
birch,  beech,  and  maple. 

The  bark  of  this  tree  is  employed  less  now  than  formerly  for  dyeing 
purposes.  Aniline  dyes  have  taken  its  place.  In  pioneer  times  the 
bark  was  one  of  the  best  coloring  materials  the  people  had,  and  every 
family  looked  after  its  own  supply  as  carefully  as  it  provided  sassafras 
bark  for  tea,  slippery  elm  bark  for  poultices,  and  witch  hazel  for  gargles. 
The  oak  bark  was  peeled,  dried,  and  pounded  to  a  powder.  The  mass 
was  sifted,  and  the  yellow  particles,  being  finer  than  the  black  bark, 
passed  through  the  screen,  and  were  set  apart  for  the  dye  kettle,  while 
the  screenings  were  rejected.  Various  arts  and  sciences  were  called 
into  requisition  to  add  to  or  take  from  the  natural  color  which  the  bark 
gave  the  cloth.  Salts  of  iron  were  commonly  employed  to  modify  the 
deepness  of  the  yellow. 

The  acorns  of  this  oak  are  bitter,  and  escape  the  mast  hunters. 
Old  stumps  have  little  need  to  send  up  sprouts,  for  acorns  keep  the 
species  alive.  Yellow  oaks  are  in  no  immediate  danger  of  extermination. 
Nature  plants  generously,  and  the  tree  can  get  along  on  poor  soil  where 
the  farm  hunter  is  not  apt  to  molest  it.  It  has  a  fau-ly  thick  bark,  and  is 
able  to  take  care  of  itself  in  a  moderate  fire,  except  when  the  seedlings 
are  quite  small.  The  young  tree's  tap  root  is  much  developed,  and  goes 
deep  for  moisture,  and  the  growing  sappling  floiuishes  on  ground  where 
some  other  species  would  suffer  for  water. 

WhitelEaF  Oak  (Quercus  hypoleuca).  The  beauty  of  this  small  evergreen 
oak  of  the  mountains  of  western  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  is  in  its  foliage 
rather  than  its  wood.  Large  trunks — that  is,  those  twenty  inches  or  more  in  diameter 
— are  apt  to  be  hollow,  but  the  sound  wood  is  employed  in  repairing  wagons  in  local 
shops,  and  in  rough  ranch  timbers.  Its  importance  will  never  extend  beyond  the 
region  where  it  grows,  but  in  that  region  it  will  continue  to  be  used  where  nothing 
better  can  be  obtained.  The  largest  trees  are  sixty  feet  high,  and  two  in  diameter, 
but  few  reach  those  dimensions.  It  is  an  arid  land  oak.  It  grows  at  from  4,000  to 
6,000  feet  elevations  on  mountains  and  plateaus.  The  leaves  remain  thirteen  months 
on  the  twigs.  They  are  of  the  willow  form,  ranging  from  two  to  four  inches  in  length 
and  one-half  to  one  in  width.  The  acorns  are  small  and  bitter.  The  strength  of  this 
oak  is  remarkable,  if  it  may  be  judged  by  the  figures  given  by  Sargent.  Two  samples 
of  wood  procured  by  himself  and  Dr.  Engelmann  on  a  dry,  gravelly  ground  among 
the  Santa  Rita  mountains  in  Arizona,  showed  breaking  strength  sixty-one  per  cent 
greater  than  the  average  given  by  the  same  author  for  white  oak.  The  stiffness  of  the 
Specimens  was  a  little  above  white  oak,  and  the  weight  three  pounds  more  per  cubic 


274  American  Forest  Trees 

foot.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  results  derived  from  a  test  of  only 
two  samples  are  not  a  safe  basis  for  concluding  that  the  wood  generally  wiU  average  of 
so  great  strength.  The  annual  rings  of  growth  are  not  clearly  marked.  The  wood  is 
porous,  but  the  pores  are  not  generally  arranged  in  bands,  although  they  occasionally 
follow  that  arrangement.  The  medullary  rays  are  broad  and  abundant,  but  are 
rather  short,  measured  along  the  radial  hues.  They  are  of  pink  color,  a  characteristic 
not  unusual  with  oaks  in  semi-arid  regions.  The  foliage  is  doubtless  the  most  valu- 
able characteristic  of  whiteleaf  oak.  The  leaves  are  silver  white  below,  and  dark 
green  above.  When  they  are  agitated  by  wind  the  flashing  of  the  different  tones  and 
tints  in  the  sunshine  presents  an  attractive  picture.  It  belongs  to  the  willow  oak 
branch  of  the  red  oak  group,  and  bears  two-year  acorns. 


SCARLET  OAK 


■:  --m^    1 

-.i^m^M 

M  1 

5vS§S^   ,.    K 

sag 

S  ^  ■/«.  - '  ^  ■''>'- 

m  -^t  ^  '^'•'' 

Scarlet  Oak 


SCARLET  OAK 

(Quercus  Coccinea) 

THE  name  of  scarlet  oak  is  in  use  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  North  Carolina,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, Michigan,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  and  Ontario;  red  oak  is  the  name  in 
North  Carolina,  Alabama,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  and  Minnesota  ;  black 
oak  in  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin,  and  Spanish  oak  in 
North  Carolina. 

The  name  is  descriptive  of  the  autumn  leaves.  Artists  dispute 
among  themselves  whether  the  leaves  are  scarlet,  red,  or  crimson.  In 
their  opinion  a  good  deal  of  difference  exists  between  these  colors,  ren- 
dering it  quite  incorrect  to  give  one  color  the  name  of  another.  As  for 
the  artists,  they  are  probably  correct  in  their  analysis  of  colors,  but  the 
general  public  knows  the  tree  as  scarlet  oak,  and  it  will  doubtless  be 
called  by  that  name  by  most  people  who  speak  of  the  tree  in  the  woods, 
while  those  who  refer  to  the  wood  after  it  is  sawed  will  speak  of  it  as 
red  oak. 

The  leaves  of  scarlet  oak  are  rather  persistent,  and  remain  on  the 
twigs  late  in  the  season.  The  brilliancy  of  this  tree  is  rendered  doubly 
conspicuous,  when  it  is  contrasted  with  the  surrounding  sombre,  winter 
colors. 

In  appearance  the  tree  is  striking  for  its  delicacy  of  foliage  and 
twigs.  The  crown  is  always  narrow  and  open,  and  in  forest  growth  is 
compressed.  The  height,  in  good  specimens,  is  about  one  hundred  feet, 
but  it  often  exceeds  that  size.  In  diameter  it  grows  as  large  as  four  feet. 
The  mature  bark  is  dark  in  color  and  broken  into  broad,  smooth  ridges 
and  plates,  edged  with  red.  It  shows  a  reddish  inner  bark  when  cut  and 
this  may  be  relied  upon  to  identify  the  tree.  The  leaves  are  four  or  five 
inches  long;  deeply  sinused,  three  or  four  on  a  side;  long,  bristle-toothed 
lobes,  broad  at  the  base;  acorns  bitter,  mature  in  two  years;  sessile, 
brown;  cup  closely  drawn  in  at  the  edge. 

Its  range  comprises  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the  United 
States.  Beginning  in  southern  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont,  it 
grows  through  middle  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  to 
eastern  Nebraska.  Southward  it  extends  along  the  coast  through 
Virginia  and  inland  along  the  mountains  to  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
The  growth  is  abundant  over  most  of  the  range,  the  favorite  habitat 
being  dry,  gravelly  uplands.  It  seems  to  be  most  abundant  along  the 
northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Massachusetts  to  New  Jersey, 


278  American  Forest  Trees 

and  is  less  common  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  prairies  skirting  the  west- 
em  margins  of  the  eastern  forests.  The  average  size  of  the  tree  is  from 
seventy  to  eighty  feet  high  and  two  or  three  in  diameter.  In  many 
regions  it  is  much  smaller,  while  no  very  large  trees  have  been  reported. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  hard;  the  layers  of  annual  growth  are 
strongly  marked  by  several  rows  of  large,  open  ducts;  the  summerwood 
is  dense  and  occupies  half  the  yearly  ring;  the  medullary  rays  are  much 
like  those  of  red  oak,  though  scarcely  as  broad.  They  run  in  straight 
lines  radially,  and  show  well  in  quarter-sawing.  The  color  of  the  wood 
is  light  brown  or  red,  the  thin  sapwood  rather  darker. 

This  wood  is  practically  of  the  same  weight  as  white  oak;  but  it  is 
rated  considerably  stronger  and  stiff er.  A  number  of  writers  have  listed 
scarlet  oak  low  in  fuel  value.  Theoretically,  the  fuel  values  of  woods 
are  proportionate  to  their  weights,  except  that  resinous  woods  must  be 
compared  with  resinous,  and  non-resinous  with  non-resinous.  In 
practice,  however,  every  fireman  who  feeds  a  furnace  with  wood  knows 
that  different  woods  develop  different  degrees  of  heat,  though  they  may 
weigh  the  same.  Results  are  modified  by  various  circumstances  and 
conditions,  and  for  that  reason  theory  and  practice  are  often  far  apart 
in  determining  how  much  heat  a  given  quantity  of  wood  is  good  for. 

It  is  difficult  to  prociure  exact  information  regarding  the  uses  of 
scarlet  oak.  It  never  goes  to  market  under  its  own  name.  An  examina- 
tion of  wood-using  reports  from  a  dozen  states  within  scarlet  oak's 
range  does  not  reveal  a  single  mention  of  this  wood  for  any  piu-pose.  It 
is  certain,  nevertheless,  that  much  goes  to  market  and  that  it  has  many 
important  uses.  It  loses  its  identity  and  is  bought  and  sold  as  red  oak. 
Under  the  name  of  that  wood  it  is  manufactured  into  furnitiu-e,  finish, 
agricultural  implements,  cars,  boats,  wagons  and  other  vehicles,  and 
many  other  articles.  One  of  the  most  important  markets  for  scarlet  oak 
is  in  chair  factories.  Its  grain  is  attractive  enough  to  give  it  place  as 
outside  material,  and  its  strength  fits  it  for  frames  and  other  parts  which 
must  bear  strain.  Chair  stock  mills  which  clean  up  woodlots  and 
patches  of  forest  where  scarlet  oak  grows  in  mixture  with  other  species  of 
oak,  take  all  that  comes,  without  being  particular  as  to  the  exact 
kind  of  oak.  Slack  coopers  follow  much  the  same  course.  A  wood 
strong  enough  to  meet  requirements,  is  generally  acceptable.  Scarlet 
oak  is  usually  considered  unsuitable  for  tight  cooperage,  on  account  of 
the  large  open  pores  of  the  wood,  which  permit  leakage  of  liquids.  It 
meets  considerable  demand  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes  and  crates, 
particularly  the  latter. 

The  size  and  quality  of  logs  which  a  tree  may  furnish  to  a  sawmill 
is  no  measure  of  its  full  value.     Scarlet  oak  is  far  better  known  as  an 


American  Forest  Trees  279 

ornamental  tree  than  for  its  wood.  It  has  been  planted  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  Its  brilliant  foliage  is  greatly  admired.  No  other  oak 
equals  it,  and  it  compares  favorably  with  sugar  maple,  black  gum,  and 
dogwood.  It  is  an  ornament  to  parks  and  private  grounds,  though  the 
brilliancy  of  its  foliage  is  seldom  exhibited  to  as  good  advantage  in 
cultivation  as  in  the  native  forest  where  contrasts  are  more  numerous, 
and  natxrre  does  its  work  unhindered  by  man.  The  scarlet  oak  is  not  a 
rapid  grower,  and  the  form  of  the  tree  is  not  perfectly  symmetrical. 
The  spring  leaves  are  red,  the  summer  foliage  bright,  rich  green,  the 
autumn  scarlet — a  variety  not  equalled  by  many  forest  trees. 

Willow  Oak  (Quercus  phellos)  is  named  for  its  leaves  which  look 
like  those  of  willow.  There  is  a  group  of  such  oaks  with  leaves  similar, 
and  they  are  known  collectively  as  willow  oaks.  The  one  here  described 
may  be  considered  typical  of  the  group. 

This  oak  is  apt  to  present  rather  a  surprising  appearance  to  those 
who  have  seen  nothing  but  those  oaks  whose  leaves  are  lobed  or  cleft. 
It  belongs  to  the  red  oaks.  Like  others  of  this  division  it  has  a  tendency 
to  hybridize,  several  varieties  being  known.  Willow  oak  is  a  denizen  of 
the  southern  Atlantic  and  southeastern  states  and  favors  rich,  moist 
soil,  either  on  uplands  or  on  bottoms,  along  the  margins  of  streams  or 
swamps.  It  does  not  go  inland  as  far  as  the  foothills  of  the  ranges  and  is 
found  most  abundantly  in  the  basin  of  the  lower  Mississippi.  Beginning 
in  New  York,  the  range  extends  southward  into  Florida,  along  the  Gulf 
states,  touching  Texas,  up  through  Arkansas,  touching  Missouri  and 
Kentucky,  down  through  western  Tennessee  and  southern  Georgia 
rounding  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachians. 

Young  trees  have  a  slender  delicate  pendant  appearance  of  twigs 
and  foliage  more  typical  of  the  willow  than  of  oak;  but  in  time  they 
become  more  rugged,  although  the  branching  and  foliage  are  always 
more  delicate  than  is  usual  with  oaks.  The  tree  attains  a  height  of 
eighty  feet  and  a  diameter  up  to  four  feet,  but  usually  is  about  half  of 
this.  It  is  clothed  in  a  smooth,  brown  bark,  ridged  only  in  older  trees. 
The  leaves  are  about  five  inches  long  and  narrow  in  proportion,  are  of 
shiny,  leathery  texture,  dark  above  and  pale  below.  The  acorns  are 
on  short  stalks,  solitary  or  in  pairs,  and  ripen  in  two  years,  are  short 
and  rounded  and  in  shallow  cups. 

The  weight  of  willow  oak  is  approximately  the  same  as  white  oak. 
It  is  slightly  stronger  but  less  elastic.  Its  annual  rings  contain  broad 
bands  of  small  open  ducts  parallel  to  the  thin,  dark,  medullary  rays. 
The  wood  is  reddish-brown  in  color,  the  thick  sapwood  darker  brown. 
The  fuel  value  is  rated  the  same  as  white  oak,  but  the  wood  contains 
more  ash. 


280  American  Forest  Trees 

Willow  oak  is  much  used  in  the  South,  but  usually  under  the  name 
red  oak.  Lumbermen  seldom  speak  of  it  as  willow  oak.  The  species  is 
as  highly  developed  in  Louisiana  as  anywhere  else,  and  the  uses  found 
for  the  wood  in  that  state  will  probably  be  found  for  it  wherever  the 
tree  grows  in  commercial  quantities.  A  report  on  the  manufacture  of 
wooden  commodities  in  Louisiana,  published  in  1912,  listed  the  following 
uses  for  willow  oak:  Agricultural  implements,  balustrades,  bar  tops, 
bedsteads,  bottoms  for  wagon  beds,  bridge  approaches  and  floors,  chairs, 
church  pews,  cot  frames,  doors,  floors,  frames,  interior  finish,  molding, 
aewel  posts,  pulpits,  railing,  screens,  slack  cooperage,  stairwork,  store 
fixtures,  wagon  axles,  and  other  vehicle  parts. 

These  uses  coincide  nearly  with  those  of  red  oak,  and  indicate  the 
important  position  occupied  by  willow  oak  in  the  country's  industries. 
Those  who  handle  the  wood  complain  that  its  seasoning  qualities  are 
poor,  and  that  care  is  necessary  to  bring  satisfactory  results.  It  works 
nicely  and  stands  well  after  the  seasoning  is  accomplished. 

Willow  oak  grows  rapidly.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  oak  in  this  country 
surpasses  it.  It  wants  damp,  rich  soil  and  a  warm  climate,  to  do  its 
best.  Some  of  the  bottom  lands  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  have 
produced  splendid  stands  of  willow  oak,  the  trunks  being  tall  and  clear 
of  limbs,  and  the  wood  sound. 

The  willow  oak  is  much  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  in  the 
southern  states.  It  manages  to  keep  alive  when  planted  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts,  but  the  grace  of  its  form  is  not  fully  developed  much 
north  of  the  Potomac  river.  It  is  a  common  street  tree  in  the  South,  and 
its  airy  foliage  forms  a  pleasing  contrast  with  the  heavy,  dark-green  of 
the  magnolia. 


TURKEY  OAK 


TURKEY  OAK 

(Quercus  Catesbcei) 

THE  claim  that  this  tree  is  called  turkey  oak  because  turkeys  feed 
on  the  acorns,  is  not  well  founded.  In  common  with  nearly  all 
members  of  the  black  oak  group,  to  which  this  species  belongs,  the  acorns 
of  turkey  oak  are  bitter,  and  unless  animals  are  pressed  by  hunger  they 
do  not  eat  them.  It  is  evident  that  the  shape  of  the  leaves  gives  this  tree 
its  name.  They  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  foot  of  a  turkey. 
There  is  at  least  enough  similitude  to  suggest  the  name,  and  it  is  not 
inappropriate.  Many  people  now  use  the  term  without  thinking  of  its 
origin,  and  if  asked  their  opinion  say  that  fondness  of  turkeys  for  the 
acorns  led  to  the  name. 

The  tree  has  other  names  in  different  regions.  In  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  and  Florida  it  is  known  as 
scrub  oak.  The  name  fits  it  well  in  certain  places,  for  when  it  grows 
on  poor  soil  and  in  adversity,  it  degenerates  into  a  low,  straggling  thicket, 
frequently  not  trees  at  all,  but  shrubs.  It  is  called  black  jack  in  South 
Carolina  but  the  name  belongs  to  another  species  (gwercM^  marilandica). 
In  the  same  state  it  is  known  as  barren  scrub  oak,  because  it  is  very  small 
and  is  found  on  poor  lands  popularly  known  as  barrens.  Some  call  it 
forked-leaf  black  jack,  but  the  name  is  usually  shorter,  and  forked-leaf, 
or  forked-leaf  oak,  is  a  name  well  understood  among  lumbermen,  and  the 
people  generally  over  much  of  the  tree's  range.  Some  of  the  leaves  show 
clearly-defined  three  forks,  the  middle  one  longer  than  the  others;  but 
in  other  leaves,  often  from  the  same  tree,  the  forks  are  not  so  regularly 
outlined.  This  tree,  like  many  other  oaks,  exhibits  considerable 
variation  in  the  forms  of  leaves. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  in  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  acorns. 
They  average  about  one  inch  long  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  sit  in  shallow  cups.  They  mature  the  second  year.  The  bark  of 
old  trees  is  black  near  the  ground,  rather  rough,  and  an  inch  or  more 
thick. 

It  is  difficult  to  name  an  average  size  for  turkey  oak.  The  largest 
trunks  are  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  high,  but  the 
trees  cut  for  sawlogs  are  only  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter, 
in  most  of  the  regions.  As  previously  stated,  much  of  the  stand  is 
stunted  and  some  of  it  is  only  brush.  All  sizes  are  found,  from  large, 
first  rate  trunks  down  to  shrubs.  Large  trees  which  grow  in  forests, 
prune  themselves  well  and  their  trunks  compare  favorably  with  red  oaks. 

The  tree's  range  has  its  northeastern  limit  in  North  Carolina,  and 


284  American  Forest  Trees 

extends  to  Peace  Creek,  Florida.  It  is  found  westward  to  Louisiana 
where  fair-sized  timber  grows,  but  in  small  quantities.  It  is  usually- 
considered  that  its  best  development  is  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
but  good  trees  are  likely  to  be  foimd  in  any  part  of  its  range.  It  is 
distinctly  a  tree  of  the  South.  It  was  named  by  Michaux,  the  well- 
known  French  botanist  who  visited  the  southern  states  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  he  named  it  in  honor  of  Mark  Catesby  who  explored 
the  region  much  earlier  and  wrote  concerning  its  trees  and  other  natural 
history. 

Turkey  oak  is  one  of  the  little-known  trees  of  the  South,  as  far  as 
lumbermen  are  concerned.  They  know  it  well  enough  in  the  woods,  but 
not  at  sawmills.  When  cut  into  logs  it  ceases  to  be  turkey  oak  and 
becomes  red  oak,  and  under  that  name  it  goes  to  the  lumber  yard,  and 
later  to  market.  Users  of  red  oak  lumber  do  not  object  to  the  occasional 
piece  of  turkey  oak  mixed  with  it — if  they  ever  find  it  out,  which  few  of 
them  do.  Nevertheless,  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  sawmill  men  is 
that  turkey  oak  ought  to  rate  below  red  oak. 

Tests  of  the  wood  to  determine  its  character  and  qualities  do  not 
justify  so  low  an  estimate  of  turkey  oak.  Sargent  found  it  stronger  and 
more  elastic  than  white  oak,  while  a  little  lighter  in  weight.  It  is  nearly 
equal  to  white  oak  in  fuel  value.  It  is  hard,  compact,  and  the  rings  of 
annual  growth  are  marked  by  several  rows  of  large,  open  ducts.  The 
medullary  rays  are  broad  and  conspicuous.  The  color  is  light  brown, 
tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  somewhat  lighter. 

A  special  investigation  of  the  uses  of  turkey  oak  in  one  of  the 
southern  states  brought  out  the  fact  that  it  meets  requirements  well  and 
fills  a  place  in  several  woo  1-using  industries  in  that  region.  Vehicle 
makers  find  it  satisfactory  ii}  a  number  of  places.  It  is  made  into 
bottoms  of  wagon  beds,  felloes,  bolsters,  axles,  hubs,  hounds,  tongues, 
spokes,  standards,  sandboards,  and  reaches.  These  constitute  nearly  all 
parts  of  heavy  vehicles.  The  wood  is  made  into  telegraph  brackets,  but 
apparently  not  in  large  quantities.  Car  builders  employ  it  for  frames 
and  floors.  It  is  made  into  ordinary  matched  flooring  and  goes  in  with 
other  oaks.  It  is  used  as  a  general  fiunitm-e  wood,  both  as  outside 
material,  and  inside  frames.  It  may  be  quarter-sawed  to  advantage. 
It  is  employed  also  as  interior  finish,  which  demands  lumber  of  practical- 
ly the  same  grades  as  go  into  fumitm-e.  Mantels  of  this  wood  compare 
favorably  with  those  of  red  oak.  Chair  makers  cut  stock  from  turkey 
oak.  It  is  not  abundant  anywhere,  otherwise  it  would  be  of  much  im- 
portance. 

The  forests  of  the  United  States  contain  so  many  valuable  oaks  that 
a  scarce  and  geographically  restricted  species  like  turkey  oak  cannot  be 


American  Forest  Trees  285 

expected  to  attract  much  attention  in  the  future.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a 
strong,  interesting  tree.  It  takes  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to 
develop.  When  an  acorn  germinates  in  good  soil,  and  receives  sufficient 
light  and  moisture,  it  produces  a  merchantable  tree ;  but  in  poor  soil  and 
under  imfavorable  circumstances  it  becomes  a  stunted  bush  only. 
Woodlots  of  turkey  oak  planted  in  fertile  land  would  probably  do  as  well 
as  most  of  the  southern  red  oaks  under  like  conditions.  The  tree  is  not 
apt  to  get  justice,  because  of  the  prejudice  against  it. 

California  Black  Oak  {Quercus  californica)  ranges  from  central 
Oregon  southward  through  the  coast  region  of  California  nearly  to  the 
Mexican  boundary.  It  occurs  also  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevadas  in  California.  It  is  not  found  on  the  plains  or  near  the  sea,  but 
occurs  on  mountain  slopes,  low  summits,  elevated  valleys,  and  in  can- 
yons. In  the  North,it  ranges  froml,500  to  3,000  feet  and  in  the  South 
it  ascends  to  9,000  feet.  This  far  western  oak  bears  more  resemblance  to 
the  yellow  oak  (Quercus  velutina)  of  the  East  than  to  any  other.  Trees 
have  been  reported  100  feet  high  and  four  in  diameter,  but  they  are 
scarce.  Seventy-five  feet  high  and  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  are 
usual  dimensions  of  matiu-e  timber.  The  trees  are  inclined  to  be  angular 
in  the  outlines  of  their  crowns.  The  leaves  fall  in  autumn,  but  the  acorns 
persist  two  years.  They  sit  deep  in  their  rough  cups.  The  trunk  is 
habitually  crooked.  It  leans  out  of  plumb,  and  lacks  the  nicely  balanced 
poise  which  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  some  oaks.  The  large  boles  are 
usually  hollow,  dead  at  the  tops,  or  otherwise  defective.  That  con- 
dition is  apparently  due  to  old  age.  Trees  stand  long  after  they  pass 
maturity  and  start  on  their  decline.  They  die  by  inches,  and  not  in- 
frequently they  decay  and  crumble  by  piecemeal  both  at  the  bottom  and 
at  the  top.  At  best  the  trunk  of  this  oak  is  of  poor  form  for  saw  timber. 
It  divides  into  large  limbs  ten  or  twenty  feet  from  the  ground.  It  is 
of  slow  growth,  and  it  reaches  old  age — possibly  as  much  as  350  years  in 
extreme  cases.  The  wood  is  very  porous,  but  the  pores  are  not  in  rows. 
The  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  distinct.  It  is  not  known  that  any 
quarter-sawing  has  been  attempted,  and  it  would  hardly  be  profitable. 
The  wood  is  pale  red,  exceedingly  brittle,  firm,  light  for  oak,  and  it  has  a 
distinct  odor  of  tannin  with  which  both  the  wood  and  the  bark  are 
heavily  charged.  The  principal  uses  to  which  this  oak  is  put  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon  are  as  fuel  and  ranch  timbers,  the  latter  being  of  the 
simplest  and  roughest  sort.  Its  fuel  value  is  high,  compared  with  other 
woods  of  the  region.  Some  use  was  made  of  the  bark  for  tanning  pur- 
poses years  ago  on  the  Pacific  slope,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  go  to 
market  now. 

Blue  Jack  Oak  {Quercus  brevifolia)  bears  several  names,  upland  willow  oak. 


286  American  Forest  Trees 

to  distinguish  it  from  other  willow  oaks  which  grow  in  swamps,  sand  jack,  referring  to 
the  land  on  which  it  grows,  high-ground  willow  oak,  turkey  oak,  shin  oak  and  cinna- 
mon oak.  No  reason  is  known  for  the  last  name  which  is  not  used  outside  of  Florida. 
The  tree  grows  in  a  narrow  strip  along  the  coast  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas, 
crossing  northern  Florida.  The  blue  jack  oak  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  fifty 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  twenty  inches;  but  that  is  its  best.  It  is  usually  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  high  and  a  few  inches  in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  from  two  to  five 
inches  long  and  quite  narrow,  closely  resembling  those  of  willow.  The  acorns  are 
abundant,  but  small.  The  tree  is  of  so  little  value  that  it  does  not  interest  the 
lumberman.  It  occupies  waste  land,  and  may  produce  a  little  fuel  ^vithout  crowding 
more  valuable  trees,  but  is  in  every  way  inferior  to  the  black  jack  oak  {Quercus 
marilandica),  which  overlaps  its  range  a  little,  but  is  a  northern  species.  The  wood 
of  blue  jack  oak  is  bard,  strong,  Ught  brown  in  color,  with  darker-colored  sapwood. 


SPANISH  OAK 


o 


SPANISH  OAK 

(Quercus  Digitata) 

NE  of  the  first  difficulties  in  an  attempt  to  clear  up  the  misunder- 
standings regarding  Spanish  oak  is  to  confine  the  name  to  the 
species  to  which  it  belongs.  That  is  no  easy  task,  because  the  name  has 
been  applied  to  numerous  oaks  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and 
without  any  apparent  reason.  Some  of  these  bear  little  resemblance  to 
Spanish  oak  and  grow  almost  wholly  outside  its  range.  It  is  not  a  case 
of  mistaking  one  for  the  other,  for  there  is  no  mistake.  Some  speak  of 
the  common  red  oak  as  Spanish  oak,  others  bestow  that  name  on  yellow 
oak,  others  on  black  jack  oak,  or  scarlet  oak,  or  anyone  of  several  others. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  name  is  not  applied  to  any  member  of  the 
white  oak  group. 

It  is  said  that  Spanish  oak  and  Norway  pine  were  named  by  the 
same  process.  Each  got  its  name  because  it  was  supposed  to  be  similar 
to  a  species  in  the  old  country— the  pine  like  an  evergreen  of  north 
Eiu-ope,  and  the  oak  like  a  broadleaf  tree  of  Spain.  It  was  learned  later 
that  both  the  American  species  were  different  from  those  of  Europe  which 
they  resembled. 

The  peculiar  drooping  foliage  of  Spanish  oak  gives  the  tree  a  char- 
acter which  impresses  a  person  who  sees  the  full-leafed  crown  for  the 
first  time.  The  leaves  are  six  or  seven  inches  long  and  four  or  five 
wide.  Their  forms  vary  within  wide  limits,  and  their  shapes  change 
from  week  to  week  while  growing.  Some  have  no  lobes  or  sinuses,  others 
have  them  in  rudimentary  form  only,  while  in  still  others  they  are  well 
developed. 

The  tree  is  often  called  red  oak,  particularly  by  lumbermen  who 
cut  it  and  send  it  to  market  with  red  oak.  In  Louisiana  it  is  known  as 
Spanish  water  oak,  there  being  much  resemblance  between  it  and  water 
oak  {Quercus  nigra)  with  which  it  is  associated.  Its  range  covers  more 
than  200,000  square  miles,  beginning  at  the  north  in  New  Jersey  and 
following  down  the  coast  regions  to  central  Florida.  It  extends  west- 
ward into  Texas  to  the  valley  of  the  Brazos  river;  northward  to  Missouri 
and  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  does  not  grow  far  inland  from  the 
coast  in  the  north  Atlantic  states,  but  further  south  it  is  common  on  the 
coast  plain  between  the  sea  and  the  base  of  the  mountains.  It  is  often 
found  on  dry  sand  hills  in  that  region.  The  largest  Spanish  oaks  on 
record  grew  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley,  particularly  along  the  Wabash 
river.  It  is  usually  of  medium  size  and  large  trunks  are  seldom  seen. 
The  average  height  is  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  diameter  two  or  three.     In 


290  American  Forest  Trees 

the  open,  the  crown  is  broad  and  low,  but  in  forests  the  trunk  prunes 
itself  fairly  well,  and  makes  good  saw  timber,  as  far  as  form  and  size  are 
concerned.  The  acorns  ripen  in  two  years,  and  are  bitter.  The  bark  is 
rich  in  tannin,  but  tanneries  do  not  use  much  of  it. 

The  tree  is  not  generally  abundant.  Some  large  areas  within  its 
range  have  little,  and  thick  stands  are  unusual  anywhere.  It  is  one  of  the 
oaks  which  lumbermen  neither  reject  nor  seek.  They  cut  it  in  course  of 
operations,  and  saw  it  and  sell  it  under  the  common  name,  red  oak. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  very  hard,  and  strong.  It  is  reputed  to  decay 
more  rapidly  than  most  oaks,  and  it  checks  badly  in  seasoning.  The 
annual  rings  of  growth  are  broad,  and  the  springwood  is  marked  by 
several  rows  of  large  open  pores.  The  medullary  rays  are  few  but 
conspicuous;  color  light  red,  the  sapwood  lighter.  The  wood  weighs 
about  three  pounds  less  than  white  oak  per  cubic  foot,  and  its  fuel  value 
is  less. 

It  is  not  easy  to  compile  an  account  of  the  uses  of  Spanish  oak  by 
the  various  industries  of  this  country,  for  the  reason  that  other  oaks  pass 
by  its  name  and  it  is  known  by  names  which  should  not  be  applied  to  it. 
It  is  shown,  however,  where  special  studies  of  its  utilization  have  been 
made  that  it  is  a  useful  wood  for  many  purposes.  It  is  a  useful  furniture 
material,  and  though  statistics  do  not  give  separate  figures  for  it,  evi- 
dently the  total  quantity  consumed  yearly  runs  into  many  millions  of 
feet.  It  is  much  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  tables,  chiefly  for 
frames,  but  occasionally  as  the  outside  material.  It  may  be  quarter- 
sawed,  if  good  logs  are  selected.  The  chair  factories  in  North  Carolina 
use  about  44,000,000  feet  of  oak  yearly,  and  Spanish  oak  supplies  a 
rather  large  share  of  the  material.  It  is  employed  as  interior  finish  in 
that  state,  and  also  for  mission  furniture,  brackets  for  telegraph  and 
telephone  poles,  refrigerators,  and  kitchen  safes.  Slack  coopers  and 
manufacturers  of  boxes  and  crates  find  the  wood  suitable  for  their  wares; 
but  its  open  pores  stand  in  the  way  of  its  use  for  tight  cooperage. 

Similar  uses  of  the  wood  occur  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas, 
and  it  may  be  assumed  that  they  occur  also  in  all  other  portions  of  Span- 
ish oak's  range.  It  goes  to  wagon  shops  in  Texas  where  it  is  substituted 
for  red  oak.  It  is  employed  also  in  the  manufacture  of  rice  hullers  and 
cotton  gins.  Lumbermen  in  northern  Louisiana  use  log  trucks  with 
axles,  felloes,  and  other  heavy  parts  of  Spanish  oak,  and  it  is  frequently 
preferred  for  stone  wagons. 

In  practically  all  large  shipments  of  southern  red  oak  to  the  North, 
some  Spanish  oak  is  mixed.  It  could  not  be  otherwise,  since  this  wood 
is  cut  in  the  forest  with  other  red  oaks,  is  sawed  and  stocked  with  them, 
and  goes  with  them  to  market. 


American  Forest  Trees  291 

Black  Jack  Oak  (Quercus  marilandica)  is  one  of  the  scrub  trees  of 
this  country,  and  few  good  words  are  ever  heard  for  it ;  yet  it  has  redeem- 
ing quaUties.  Lumbermen  have  not  paid  much  attention  to  it  and  never 
will,  for  only  when  at  its  best  is  the  trunk  large  enough  for  any  kind  of 
sawlog,  and  there  has  been  little  inclination  to  use  it  for  anything  else. 
It  attains  size  fitting  it  for  fence  posts,  and  sometimes  it  performs 
service  along  that  line ;  but  the  small  trunks  are  nearly  all  sapwood,  and 
decay  strikes  them  quickly.  The  bark  is  black,  hence  the  name,  and  it 
is  exceedingly  rough,  and  is  broken  in  squares.  The  leaves  are  large 
and  pear-shaped,  with  the  broad  end  opposite  the  stem.  Some  are 
slightly  lobed.  A  vigorous  black  jack  oak,  standing  in  open  ground, 
presents  a  fine  appearance.  The  crown  is  wide  and  is  frequently  conical, 
the  limbs  small,  and  are  set  in  the  trunk  on  nearly  horizontal  lines. 
The  range  of  this  unloved  species  covers  600,000  or  more  square  miles, 
beginning  in  New  York,  running  west  to  central  Nebraska,  south  through 
Texas  nearly  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  in  Florida  to  Tampa.  It  is  not  an 
aggressive  tree  and  has  permitted  itself  to  be  crowded  off  the  good  land 
until  it  has  formed  the  habit  of  occupying  geographical  left-overs  in  the 
form  of  sand  banks  and  wornout  fields.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  its 
range  it  is  often  associated  with  scrub  pine  {Piniis  virginiana),  because 
the  two  have  similar  habits  and  are  content  to  live  in  perpetual  poverty 
on  dry  gravel  or  thin  sand.  Large  trunks  are  not  possible  under  such 
circumstances,  and  first-class  wood  is  unusual.  Black  jack  oak  at  its 
best  may  attain  a  height  of  fifty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eighteen  inches, 
but  it  is  of tener  twenty  feet  high  and  six  inches  tlirough.  It  grows  with 
moderate  rapidity  and  does  not  live  long. 

The  annual  rings  are  often  indistinct.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy, 
and  strong,  and  checks  badly  in  seasoning.  The  medullary  rays  are 
broad  and  conspicuous,  the  wood  dark  brown  in  color,  the  sapwood 
lighter.  This  oak  is  very  high  in  ash  contents,  more  than  one  per  cent 
of  the  dry  weight  of  wood  going  to  ashes  when  biuTied.  The  tree  reaches 
its  best  development  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  and  in  eastern 
Texas.  Comparatively  few  uses  for  it  have  been  found.  Cordwood 
cutters  find  it  valuable  where  it  abounds  in  sufiicient  quantity,  and  it 
has  been  burned  for  charcoal  for  iron  foundries  and  blacksmith  shops. 
Small  amounts  are  occasionally  found  in  wood-using  factories  in  Texas, 
but  only  when  logs  with  considerable  heartwood  can  be  prociu-ed.  The 
sap  is  characterless  and  seems  to  be  utterly  rejected  at  the  factory. 
Sometimes  the  rich  brown  of  the  heartwood  is  attractive,  but  more 
frequently  the  wood  is  ringed  and  splotched  with  different  colors,  not 
distributed  in  a  way  to  give  any  artistic  effect.  When  a  satisfactory 
stick  is  foimd,  it  can  be  worked  into  balusters  and  small  spindles  which 


292 


American  Forest  Trees 


show  grain  well.  It  is  also  worked  into  broad  panels  made  up  of  narrow, 
quarter-sawed  strips,  which  exhibit  the  dark  flecks  of  the  wood  to  good 
advantage. 

Trident  Oak  {Quercus  iridentata)  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  scarcity,  and  is 
of  no  conunercial  importance.  It  was  formerly  found  in  Missouri — a  single  tree — 
which  was  afterwards  destroyed.  It  occurs  in  Washtenaw  county,  Michigan.  It 
appears  that  no  report  showing  the  character  of  the  wood  has  been  made. 

Lea  Oak  (Quercus  leana),  which  is  believed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  yellow 
oak  (Quercus  velutina)  and  shingle  oak  (Qw^rcus  imbricaria) ,  is  interesting  but  not 
important.  Trees  are  apt  to  stand  alone,  and  far  apart.  They  occur  from  District 
of  Columbia  to  Missouri,  and  south  to  North  Carolina.  The  range  is  imperfectly 
known. 


LAUREL  OAK 


\s^ 

.^■UBI 

^^i;^i@^^P 

EBBi^H^HMSMiK/vifllBKI 

PSi 

1  J:'                          :^^^^.-^1 

mm 

^S^ 

^^^ 

^^^ 

fC^'r><: :    ii^^^ 

F^r^'W 

f  ■     '■  i^^^sl 

^M     /''!^^ 

^■'    ""^:^S 

^j^^^^ 

Laurel  Oak 


LAUREL  OAK 

{Quercus  Laurifolia) 

THIS  representative  of  the  black  oak  group  is  found  nowhere  except 
in  the  southeastern  states,  and  only  in  their  borders.  It  never 
ranges  far  inland,  but  sticks  to  wet  localities  and  the  margins  of  swamps 
where  its  associates  are  tupelo,  southern  white  cedar,  cypress,  magnolias, 
and,  near  its  southern  limit,  m3Ttle  and  other  semi-tropical  trees  and 
shrubs.  It  is  sometimes  utilized  as  an  ornament,  but  that  is  not  its 
usual  fimction.  It  is  not  a  successful  competitor  as  a  shade  tree  with 
willow  oak  and  water  oak. 

Beginning  at  the  border  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia  as  the 
northern  limit  of  growth,  this  interesting  tree  ranges  southward  along 
the  coast  to  Cape  Romano  in  Florida  and  westward  in  the  lower  Gulf 
states  to  southeastern  Louisiana.  It  is  seen  at  its  best  in  eastern  Florida. 
It  puts  forth  a  vigorous  growth  on  the  hummock  land  in  the  southern 
part  of  that  state,  where  it  develops  a  shapely  trunk  when  in  crowded 
stands.     It  grows  well  in  very  rocky  ground. 

Although  the  common  name  laurel  oak  is  prompted  by  its  foliage, 
the  tree  bears  various  other  sectional  names.  It  is  known  as  laurel  oak 
in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  and  Florida;  Darlington 
oak  in  South  Carolina;  willow  oak  in  Florida  and  South  Carolina;  water 
oak  in  Georgia.  The  latter  name  has  a  tendency  to  confuse  it  with 
another  species  which  is  properly  called  water  oak  {Quercus  nigra). 

The  ornamental  qualities  of  this  tree  are  due  to  the  tall  stately 
bole,  its  shapely  and  symmetrical  round-topped  head  and  slender 
branches  and  twigs.  It  sometimes  attains  the  dignity  of  one  hundred 
feet  in  height  with  a  proportionate  diameter  of  three  or  four  feet.  The 
bark  is  firm,  of  dark,  reddish-brown  color,  and  usually  is  not  fissured  but 
finely  broken  into  small  close,  scale-like  plates.  On  old  trees,  especially 
at  the  butt,  deep  fissures  divide  it  into  broad  ridges.  The  buds  are  shiny 
brown,  and  they  narrow  abruptly  to  an  acute  point.  The  acorns  are 
either  sessile  or  have  short  stalks,  and  they  usually  grow  alone.  They 
are  short  and  broad,  and  are  incased  in  shallow,  thin  cups.  In  the  flower- 
ing season  hairy  aments  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  tree.  The 
leaves  are  dark  green  above  and  lighter  on  the  lower  surface  and  are 
grouped  rather  closely  on  the  twigs.  They  attain  a  length  of  four  inches 
or  less,  and  fall  gradually  after  turning  yellow. 

Laurel  oak  seems  to  be  little  used.  It  is  occasionally  referred  to  as 
rather  inferior  to  other  members  of  the  black  oak  group,  but  it  is  not 
apparent  why  it  bears  that  reputation.    It  may  be  on  account  of  its 

295 


296  American  Forest  Trees 

poor  seasoning  qualities.  Like  other  southern  oaks,  it  is  very  heavy 
when  green,  and  it  is  inclined  to  shrink  and  warp  while  in  the  process 
of  parting  with  its  moisture.  If  this  can  be  successfully  overcome,  the 
wood  ought  to  be  valuable.  Tests  made  on  four  samples  cut  on  St. 
John's  river,  Florida,  recorded  in  Sargent's  tables,  show  remarkable 
results.  The  wood  is  34  per  cent  stronger  and  37  per  cent  stiffer  than 
white  oak,  and  is  only  one  pound  heavier  per  cubic  foot  of  dry  wood. 
If  these  values  are  fairly  representative  of  the  wood  of  laurel  oak,  it 
should  be  exceptionally  valuable  in  vehicle  making.  It  would  fall 
considerably  below  hickory,  but  would  stand  very  high  among  other 
woods,  and  could  be  recommended  for  wagon  axles,  tongues,  and  other 
parts  of  heavy  vehicles. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  tests  alone,  and  par- 
ticularly when  the  number  of  samples  is  small,  are  not  sufficient  to  decide 
a  wood's  place  as  a  manufacturing  material.  It  must  be  tried  in  actual 
practice,  and  that  has  not  yet  been  done  in  the  case  of  laiirel  oak  as  a 
wagon  wood.  When  tried  out  it  may  exhibit  defects,  or  undesirable 
qualities,  which  are  not  apparent  in  samples  employed  in  laboratory 
tests. 

There  is  little  exact  information  available  in  regard  to  the  supply  of 
laurel  oak  in  the  South.  It  is  not  abundant  in  the  sense  that  willow  oak 
and  Texan  red  oak  are.  Neither  are  the  trees  generally  of  good  form  for 
lumber.  Little  has  ever  been  cut,  because  the  land  where  it  grows  is  not 
demanded  for  agriculture.  It  occupies  out-of-the-way  places,  and  the 
hunter  and  fisherman  are  better  acquainted  with  it  than  the  lumberman. 

Highland  Oak  (Quercus  wislizeni)  is  a  California  evergreen  with 
leaves  commonly  shaped  like  holly,  but  sometimes  their  edges  are 
smooth  with  no  sign  of  teeth.  The  foliage  remains  longer  on  this  tree 
than  is  usual  with  evergreen  oaks.  Old  leaves  generally  fall  within  a 
month  after  the  new  crop  appears;  but  those  of  highland  oak  remain 
several  months  longer,  gradually  falling  during  the  second  summer. 
When  the  tree  is  at  its  best  it  is  a  splendid  representative  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Its  form  does  not  please  lumbermen,  for  the  trunk  is  short 
and  rough ;  but  the  crown  rises  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  is  symmetrical, 
the  foliage  dark  green,  and  the  general  appearance  is  that  of  an  enor- 
mous holly  tree.  Trunks  are  sometimes  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter. 
The  name  highland  oak  is  somewhat  misleading,  though  the  species 
ascends  to  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  or  more.  It  is  described  as  a  high- 
land tree  to  distinguish  it  from  the  California  live  oak  (Quercus  agrifolia) 
which  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea  in  California.  The  highland  oak 
ranges  from  northern  California  to  the  international  boundary,  following 
the  foothills  of  the  mountain  ranges.     It  occurs  in  dry  river  bottoms  and 


American  Forest  Trees  297 

washes  and  in  desert  mountain  canyons.  It  is  not  choice  as  to  soil  but 
will  grow  in  loam,  sand,  gravel,  or  among  rocks.     It  is  not  abundant. 

When  it  grows  uear  the  sea  it  is  apt  to  lose  its  tree  form  and  become 
a  shrub.  It  assumes  that  form  on  Santa  Cruz  and  Santa  Rosa  islands  off 
the  coast  or  southern  California.  It  grows  slowly  and  is  tenacious  of 
life.  When  it  has  once  secm^ed  a  foothold  it  hangs  on  with  determina- 
tion, though  exposed  to  severe  storms  and  inhospitable  conditions.  The 
acorns  do  not  mature  until  late  in  the  autumn  of  their  second  year.  They 
are  sometimes  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  scarcely  a  third  of  an  inch 
thick.  The  wood  of  this  oak  possesses  some  good  qualities  which  are 
locally  appreciated  by  wagon  makers  who  use  it  for  repair  work.  It  is 
extensively  cut  for  fuel,  and  it  burns  about  like  eastern  white  oak,  but 
leaves  more  ashes.  The  dry  wood  weighs  49  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It 
is  considerably  weaker  than  white  oak  and  is  less  elastic.  The  summer- 
wood  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  annual  growth  ring.  It  is  very 
porous,  the  rows  of  pores  running  parallel  with  the  medullary  rays.  This 
part  of  the  wood  structure  is  midway  between  that  of  deciduous  and  the 
evergreen  oaks.  The  medullary  rays  are  broad  but  short.  When  exposed 
on  a  tangential  surface,  they  are  from  one-foiu-th  to  one-half  inch  long, 
and  give  the  wood  a  flecked  appearance.  Exposed  in  cross  section, they 
are  from  one  inch  to  four  inches  in  length.  This  applies,  of  course,  only 
to  large  rays,  easily  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  In  quarter-sawed  lumber, 
the  rays  have  a  pinkish  color  and  glossy  luster  which  are  not  pleasing. 
This  tree  belongs  in  the  class  with  those  which  are  in  no  danger  of  being 
extirpated  by  human  agencies.  It  occupies  land  which  man  does  not 
need  and  will  never  want. 

Myrtle  Oak  (Quercus  myrtifolia)  associates  with  the  laurel  oak  in  some  parts 
of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  closely  resembles  it,  though  it  is  smaller, 
and  gives  little  promise  of  ever  becoming  important  in  a  commercial  way.  It  is 
clearly  in  the  scrub  oak  class,  and  does  not  approach  the  dignity  of  even  a  small  tree 
in  most  of  its  range.  Few  specimens  can  be  found  exceeding  a  height  of  twenty  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  five  or  six  inches.  Trees  approaching  that  size  grow  in  western 
Florida  in  the  region  of  the  Apalachicola  river.  Generally  this  oak  covers  dry,  sandy 
ridges  and  islands,  and  is  shrubby.  It  forms  thickets  on  some  of  the  islands  off 
the  coast  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  extends  its  range  westward  to  the  low, 
southern  parts  of  Louisiana  where  the  dwarf  trees  are  ahnost  hidden  by  tall  reeds  and 
grass.  Its  name  refers  to  the  leaf  it  bears.  It  is  impossible  that  man  can  ever  make 
much  use  of  this  tree. 

MoREHUS  Oak  (Quercus  morehus)  can  never  be  important  in  the  lumber 
industry,  but  it  fills  a  few  places  in  California  where  the  ground  needs  a  cover.  Its 
range  is  in  the  northern  coast  range  and  the  Sierra  foothills,  extending  as  far  south  as 
Kings  river.  The  edges  of  the  leaves  bear  bent  hooks  like  saw  teeth.  The  foliage 
falls  in  late  winter.  Trees  are  occasionally  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  The  wood 
has  not  the  appearance  of  possessing  much  value,  and  is  too  scarce  to  be  important. 
The  most  interesting  thing  connected  with  this  tree  is  that  it  is  supposed  to  be  a 


298  American  Forest  Trees 

hybrid — a  cross  between  highland  oak  and  California  black  oak.     It  was  first  found 
in  1863,  and  a  considerable  range  has  since  been  estabhshed  for  it. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  investigators  that  new  tree  species  have  their  ori- 
gin in  crosses  between  existing  species.  Of  the  countless  thousands  of  such 
crosses  a  few,  at  long  intervals  of  time,  may  develop  characteristics  which  enable 
them  to  maintain  their  existence  and  to  spread  into  new  territory.  If  that  occurs, 
a  new  kind  of  tree  has  appeared  on  earth  and  is  ready  to  take  its  place  among 
the  established  forests  of  the  region.  Cross-fertilization  among  trees  and  plants 
is  very  common,  but  so  many  adverse  conditions  are  encountered,  that  few  hy- 
brids ever  amount  to  anything. 


Pin  Oak 


PIN  OAK 

(Quercus  Palustris) 

PIN  oak  ranges  from  certain  sections  of  Massachusetts,  notably  the 
Connecticut  river  valley,  and  near  Amherst,  westward  as  far  as  the 
southeastern  part  of  Missouri;  on  the  south  it  is  found  along  the  lower 
Potomac  river  in  Virginia,  in  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  and  Oklahoma. 

It  is  known  as  pin  oak  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia,  Maryland,  Arkan- 
sas, Missouri,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Kansas;  in  Arkansas  and 
Kansas  it  is  called  swamp  Spanish  oak;  in  Rhode  Island  and  Illinois 
it  is  often  known  as  water  oak;  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Kansas  as 
Bwamp  oak ;  in  Arkansas  as  water  Spanish  oak. 

The  name  pin  oak  is  said  to  belong  to  this  tree  because  of  a  peculiar- 
ity of  its  branches.  They  leave  the  trunk  and  the  larger  limbs  at  nearly 
right  angles,  and  criss-cross  in  all  directions,  resembling  pins  thrust  into 
the  wood,  and  bristling  outward  at  every  angle.  The  crowding  to  which 
they  are  subjected  kills  many  of  them  as  the  tree  reaches  middle  age, 
but  the  stubs  do  not  drop  quickly,  and  as  many  of  the  characteristic 
pins  appear  to  be  present  as  ever.  Such  is  the  usual  explanation  given 
to  account  for  the  name,  and  the  facts  fit  the  theory ;  but  the  fact  that 
several  other  species  are  called  pin  oaks  is  not  accounted  for.  The 
habit  of  the  branches  of  all  of  them  is  not  the  same.  The  Gambel  oak  in 
its  Arizona  range  has  that  name.  So  has  the  chinquapin  oak  in  Arkansas 
and  Texas,  but  that  is  apparently  a  shortening  of  its  true  name,  the  last 
syllable  only  being  used.  They  call  the  Durand  oak  pin  oak  in  Texas, 
but  without  any  known  reason. 

The  botanical  name  palustris,  belonging  to  this  species,  refers  to  the 
tree's  habit  of  growing  in  swamps  and  damp  land  along  river  bottoms. 
It  is  not  a  swamp  tree  as  cypress  is,  but  is  more  like  swamp  white  oak, 
and  finds  its  most  congenial  surroundings  on  the  borders  of  streams  and 
on  fairly  well  drained  lowland  where  roots  readily  reach  water. 

The  leaves  are  three  or  five  inches  long,  are  simple,  and  alternate. 
They  are  broad,  and  have  from  five  to  nine  lobes  which  are  toothed,  and 
bristle-tipped  on  the  ends.  The  sinuses  are  broad  and  rounded,  and  ex- 
tend well  toward  the  midrib,  which  is  stout,  and  from  which  the  veins 
branch  off  conspicuously.  In  color  the  leaves  are  bright  green  above 
and  lighter  below  when  young,  becoming  thin,  firm  and  darker  green  at 
maturity;  late  in  autumn  they  turn  a  rich,  deep  scarlet.  They  are 
coated  below  with  pubescense,  and  have  large  tufts  of  pale  hairs  in  the 
axils  of  the  veins. 


302  American  Forest  Trees 

The  fruit  of  pin  oak  is  a  small  acorn  which  grows  either  sessile  or  on 
a  very  short  stem;  sometimes  in  clusters,  and  sometimes  singly.  In 
shape  the  acorns  are  nearly  hemispherical,  and  measure  about  a  half  inch 
in  diameter ;  they  are  enclosed  only  at  the  base,  in  a  thin,  saucer-shaped 
cup,  dark  brown,  and  scaly. 

The  bark  of  a  matiu-e  tree  is  dark  gray  or  brownish-green;  it  is 
rough,  being  full  of  small  furrows,  and  frequently  cracks  open  and  shows 
the  reddish  inner  layer  of  bark.  On  small  branches  and  young  trunks,  it 
is  smoother,  lighter,  and  more  lustrous. 

Pin  oak  is  smaller  than  red  oak.  Average  trees  are  seventy  or 
eighty  feet  high  and  two  or  three  in  diameter.  Specimens  120  feet  high 
and  four  feet  in  diameter  are  heard  of  but  are  seldom  seen.  Near  the 
northern  limit  of  pin  oak's  range  large  trees  are  not  found,  nor  are  small 
trees  plentiful.  This  holds  true  in  all  parts  of  New  England  and 
northern  New  York  where  the  species  is  found  growing  naturally.  South 
of  Pennsylvania,  along  the  flood  plains  of  rivers  which  flow  to  Chesapeake 
bay,  a  better  class  of  timber  is  found.  The  best  development  of  the 
species  is  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley. 

It  grows  rapidly,  but  falls  a  little  short  of  the  red  oak.  When 
young  growth  is  cut,  sprouts  will  rise  from  the  stumps  and  flourish  for  a 
time,  but  merchantable  trees  are  seldom  or  never  produced  that  way. 
The  acorn  must  be  depended  on.  It  has  been  remarked  that  pin  oak 
does  not  prune  itself  well,  but  it  does  better  in  dense  stands  than  in 
open  ground.     In  the  latter  case  the  limbs  are  late  in  dying  and  falling. 

Pin  oak  has  proved  to  be  a  valuable  street  and  park  tree.  It 
possesses  several  characteristics  which  recommend  it  for  that  use.  It 
grows  rapidly,  and  it  quickly  attains  a  size  which  lessens  its  liability  to 
injury  by  accidents.  Its  shade  is  tolerably  dense;  the  crown  is  shapely 
and  attractive ;  the  leaves  fall  late ;  and  it  seems  to  stand  the  smoke  and 
dust  of  cities  better  than  many  other  trees.  It  is  easily  and  successfully 
transplanted  if  taken  when  small.  Many  towns  and  cities  from  Long 
Island  to  Washington,  D.  C,  have  planted  the  pin  oak  along  streets, 
avenues,  and  in  parks.  Several  thoroughfares  in  Washington  are  shaded 
by  them. 

Considerable  planting  of  pin  oak  has  been  done  by  railroads  which 
expect  to  grow  ties.  Trees  of  this  species  when  cut  in  forests  and  made 
into  crossties  do  not  all  show  similar  resistance  to  decay.  Some  ties 
are  perishable  in  a  short  time,  while  others  give  satisfactory  service. 
The  best  endure  well  without  preservative  treatment,  but  all  are 
benefited  by  it.  If  the  experimental  plantings  turn  out  well,  it  may  be 
expected  that  pin  oak  will  fill  an  important  place  in  the  crosstie  business. 

Because  of  numerous  limbs,  lumber  cut  from  pin  oak  is  apt  to  be 


American  Forest  Trees  303 

knotty,  and  the  percentage  of  good  grades  small.  The  annual  rings  are 
wide,  and  are  about  evenly  divided  between  spring  and  summerwood, 
though  the  latter  often  exceeds  the  former.  Its  general  appearance 
suggests  red  oak,  but  it  is  more  porous  in  trunks  of  thrifty  growth. 
The  springwood  is  largely  made  up  of  pores.  The  medullary  rays  are 
hardly  as  prominent  as  those  of  red  oak,  but  in  other  ways  resemble 
them.  The  wood  weighs  43.24  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  a  little 
above  red  oak.  It  is  hard  and  strong,  dark  brown  with  thin  sapwood  of 
darker  color.     The  lumber  checks  and  warps  badly  in  seasoning. 

The  uses  to  which  pin  oak  is  put  must  be  considered  in  a  general 
way  because  of  the  absence  of  exact  statistics.  The  wood  is  not  listed 
by  the  lumber  trade  under  its  own  name,  but  goes  along  with  others  of 
the  black  oak  group.  Its  uses,  however,  are  known  along  a  number  of 
lines.  Lumbermen  cut  it  wherever  it  is  fotmd  mixed  with  other  hard- 
woods. Sometimes  vehicle  manufacturers  make  a  point  of  securing  a 
supply  of  this  wood.  That  occurs  oftener  with  small  concerns  than 
large.  It  is  made  into  felloes,  reaches,  and  bolsters.  Furniture 
makers  use  it,  and  well  selected,  quarter-sawed  stock  is  occasionally 
reduced  to  veneer.  The  articles  produced  pass  for  red  oak,  and  it  would 
be  very  difficult  to  detect  the  difference  between  pin  oak  and  true  red 
oak  when  finished  as  veneer.  Some  highly  attractive  mission  furniture 
is  said  to  be  of  pin  oak. 

More  goes  to  chair  stock  mills  than  to  factories  which  produce 
higher  classes  of  furniture.  Chairs  utilize  very  small  pieces,  and  that 
gives  the  stock  cutter  a  chance  to  trim  out  the  knots  and  produce  the 
maximum  amount  of  clear  stuff.  Chair  makers  in  Michigan  reported  the 
use  of  60,000  feet  of  pin  oak  in  1910.  Slack  coopers  work  in  much  the 
same  way  as  chair  mills,  and  pin  oak  is  acceptable  material  for  many 
classes  of  barrels  and  other  containers.  Small  tight  knots  are  frequently 
not  defects  sufficient  to  cause  the  rejection  of  staves.  Tight  coopers 
do  not  find  pin  oak  suitable,  because  the  wood  is  too  porous  to  hold 
liquids,  particularly  liquors  containing  alcohol.  The  wood  is  mixed 
at  mills  with  red  oak  and  other  similar  species  and  is  manufactured  into 
picture  frames,  boxes,  crates,  interior  finish  for  houses,  and  many  other 
commodities  requiring  strength  or  handsome  finish.  In  early  years 
when  the  people  manufactured  by  hand  what  they  needed,  and  obtained 
their  timber  from  the  nearest  forest  or  woodlot,  they  split  fence  rails, 
pickets,  clapboards,  and  shingles  of  pin  oak. 

Oak-apples  or  galls  are  the  round  excrescences  formed  on  the  limbs 
by  gallflies  and  their  eggs.  They  seem  particularly  fond  of  this  species 
and  specimens  are  often  seen  which  are  literally  covered  with  them. 
The  worms  which  live  inside  seem  to  flourish  particularly  well  on  the 


304  American  Forest  Trees 

food  they  imbibe  from  pin  oak.  The  primitive  school  teachers  three  or 
four  generations  ago  turned  these  oak  galls  to  account.  They  are  rich 
in  tannin,  and  were  employed  in  manufacturing  the  local  ink  supply. 
The  teachers  were  the  ink  makers  as  well  as  the  pen  cutters  when  the 
pens  were  whittled  from  quills.  The  process  of  making  the  ink  was 
simple.  The  galls  were  soaked  in  a  kettle  of  water  and  nails.  The  iron 
acted  on  the  tannin  and  produced  the  desired  blackness,  but  if  special 
luster  was  desired,  it  was  furnished  by  adding  the  fruit  of  the  wild  green- 
brier  (Smilax  rotundifolia),  which  grew  abundantly  in  the  woods. 
It  was  well  that  steel  pens  were  not  then  in  use,  for  the  school- 
master's oak  ink  would  have  eaten  up  such  a  pen  in  a  single  day. 


CALIFORNIA  LIVE  OAK 


.J! 

1 

1 

California  Livi.  Oak 

CALIFORNIA  LIVE  OAK 

(Qnerctts  Agrifolia) 

THIS  fine  western  tree  belongs  to  the  black  oak  group,  yet  its  acorns 
mature  in  one  year,  like  those  of  white  oaks.  It  is  the  only  known 
black  oak  with  that  habit.  It  is  properly  classed  with  canyon  live  oak 
which  has  many  characteristics  of  white  oak,  yet  matm-es  its  acorns  the 
second  year.  The  two  oaks  with  freakish  fruit  belong  in  California,  and 
to  some  extent  occupy  the  same  range.  California  live  oak  is  apparently 
making  an  effort  to  conform  to  the  habit  of  other  black  oaks  by  produc- 
ing two  year  acorns.  It  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  doing  so,  but  flowers 
occasionally  appear  in  the  fall,  and  young  acorns  set  on  the  twigs.  They 
drop  diu-ing  the  winter,  and  it  is  not  believed  that  any  of  them  hang  till 
the  second  season. 

The  range  of  this  tree  covers  most  of  the  California  coast  region 
but  does  not  reach  the  great  interior  valleys.  The  tree  is  very  common 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state.  It  is  called  an  evergreen,  and 
some  individuals  deserve  that  reputation,  but  the  leaves  never  remain 
long  after  the  new  crop  appears.  Frequently  the  old  leaves  do  not  wait 
for  the  new,  and  when  they  drop,  the  branches  remain  bare  for  a  few 
weeks.  The  form  of  the  leaf  is  not  constant.  Some  have  smooth 
margins,  but  the  typical  leaf  is  toothed  like  holly.  One  of  the  early 
names  by  which  the  tree  was  known  was  holly-leaved  oak.  The  bark 
looks  much  like  the  bark  of  chestnut  oak.  It  is  bought  for  tanning 
purposes,  but  its  principal  use  is  to  adulterate  the  bark  of  another  oak 
(Quercus  densiflora).  Trees  range  in  height  from  twenty-five  to 
seventy-five  feet,  and  from  one  foot  to  four  in  diameter.  The  trunks 
are  very  short,  and  seldom  afford  clear  lengths  exceeding  eight  feet, 
and  often  not  more  than  four.  Trees  generally  grow  in  the  open,  but 
when  in  thickets,  the  boles  lengthen  somewhat.  They  are  of  slow  growth 
and  live  to  old  age. 

The  wood  is  hard  and  brittle.  A  cubic  foot  weighs  51.43  pounds 
when  thoroughly  dry.  The  wood  of  matiure  trees  is  reddish-brown; 
but  young  and  middle  aged  trunks  are  all  sap  wood,  and  are  white  from 
bark  to  center.  When  sapwood  is  exposed  to  the  air  a  considerable 
time  it  changes  color  and  becomes  very  dark  brown.  The  medullary 
rays  of  this  oak  are  broad,  fairly  numerous,  and  are  darker  than  the 
surrounding  wood.  When  the  log  is  quarter-sawed,  the  exposed  flecks 
of  bright  siu^ace  are  the  darkest  parts.  To  that  extent,  it  resembles 
quarter-sawed  sycamore,  but  the  woods  do  not  look  alike  in  any  other 
particular.     This  oak  is  very  porous,  and  the  pores — as  is  usual  with  live 

307 


308  American  Forest  Trees 

oaks — are  arranged  in  rows  running  from  bark  to  center  rather  than 
parallel  with  the  annual  rings.  No  clear  line  is  distinguishable  between 
spring  and  summerwood. 

Cordwood  constitutes  the  most  important  use  for  California  live 
oak.  It  rates  high  in  fuel  value,  and  the  many  large  and  crooked  limbs 
make  the  tree  an  ideal  one,  from  the  cordwood  cutter's  viewpoint.  By 
carefully  ricking  the  wood,  with  the  crooks  and  elbows  in  every  possible 
direction — at  which  some  cordwood  cutters  are  very  proficient — a  cord 
of  wood  may  be  constructed  in  the  forest,  which,  when  sold  and 
delivered  in  the  buyer's  shed,  contracts  like  an  accordion. 

Canyon  Live  Oak  (^Quercus  chrysolepis).  This  splendid  California  oak  bears 
many  names.  It  is  an  evergreen,  and  therefore  is  called  live  oak.  It  is  hard  when 
thoroughly  seasoned,  and  this  has  won  for  it  the  name  iron  oak.  Wagon  makers 
often  so  designate  it.  It  is  called  Valparaiso  oak,  but  for  what  reason  is  not  apparent. 
Black  live  oak  doubtless  refers  to  the  dark  color  of  the  foliage.  The  most  shapely 
trees  grow  in  the  bottoms  of  canyons,  and  the  name,  canyon  live  oak,  refers  to  that 
circumstance.  Hickory  oak  is  not  an  appropriate  name,  though  it  doubtless  im- 
plies that  the  wood  possesses  the  toughness  of  hickory.  It  is  about  as  tough  as  white 
oak.  The  name  golden  cup  oak  is  a  translation  of  its  botanical  name  which,  in 
Greek,  means  "golden  scale,"  a  reference  to  a  yellow  tomentum  or  wool  which  covers 
the  cups  of  the  acorns.  The  wood's  hardness  qualifies  it  to  serve  as  mauls,  hence  the 
name  maul  oak. 

The  northern  limit  of  its  growth  is  in  southern  Oregon.  It  goes  south  from  there 
on  the  coast  ranges  of  California  and  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  to  the 
highlands  of  southern  California.  Its  growth  on  the  mountains  of  southern  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  is  always  shrubby.  The  lowest  limit  of  its  range  is  about  1,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  the  best  specimens  occurring  at  low  altitudes  in  the  sheltered  canyons 
of  the  coast  ranges  of  California.  Gradually  diminishing  in  size,  it  grows  to  the  very 
tops  of  many  of  the  high  mountains,  sometimes  reaching  9,000  feet,  being  not  more 
than  a  foot  high  at  the  upper  limits  of  its  range.  In  appearance  this  tree  resembles 
the  eastern  live  oak  (Quercus  virginiana),  having  the  same  majestic  wide-spreading 
crown,  except  in  the  high  altitudes  where  it  forms  dense  thickets  covering  large  areas. 

When  in  its  favorite  habitat,  the  massive  proportions  and  majestic  appearance 
of  this  tree  are  imposing,  the  crown  sometimes  being  150  feet  across,  the  bole  short 
and  thick,  and  the  great  branches  long  and  horizontal.  It  is  not  clothed  in  the  somber 
Spanish  moss  that  is  often  present  on  the  great  hve  oaks  of  the  southeastern  states, 
but  there  is  a  similarity  of  appearance  in  the  drooping  slender  twigs.  One  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  across  is  cited  as  an  unusual  width  of  crown,  one  hundred  feet  being  a 
good  average  size,  and  forty  or  fifty  feet  the  usual  height,  although  it  sometimes 
reaches  100.  The  bole  is  vested  in  a  gray-brown,  reddish-tinged  bark,  about  an  inch 
thick,  and  broken  into  numerous  scales  which  in  old  age  become  flaky  and  pliable 
and  fall  off. 

The  bark  is  light  colored,  and  has  the  stringy  character  of  white  oak.  The 
tree  would  readily  pass  for  a  white  oak  were  it  not  for  its  two-year  acorns  which  class  it 
in  the  black  oak  group.  The  wood  resembles  white  oak,  and  weighs  52.93  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

Few  oaks,  if  any,  retain  their  leaves  a  longer  time  than  this.  They  remain  on 
the  branches  three  or  four  years.     Most  evergreen  oaks  shed  theirs  at  the  beginning 


American  Forest  Trees  309 

of  the  second  year.  The  leaves  of  this  tree  are  peculiar  in  another  way.  They 
assume  various  forms.  That  in  itself  is  not  unusual  and  occurs  with  many  species; 
but  the  canyon  live  oak  has  one  pattern  of  leaf  for  the  young  tree,  another  for  the  old. 
One  form  has  a  margin  with  sharp,  hooked  teeth;  another  has  smooth-margined 
leaves,  and  there  are  various  intermediate  forms.  Sizes  vary  no  less  than  shapes  of 
both  acorns  and  leaves.     Some  acorns  are  half  an  inch  in  length,  others  two  inches. 

The  canyon  hve  oak  is  believed  to  be  long-lived,  but  further  information  is 
desirable.  The  massive  trunks  represent  centuries.  They  usually  occur  in  sheltered 
places  which  are  measurably  secure  from  the  ordinary  perils  which  beset  trees,  notably 
the  woodsman's  ax  and  the  periodic  forest  fire.  The  bottoms  of  canyons  where  this 
oak  makes  choice  of  situation  do  not  usually  bum  fiercely,  and  trees  sheltered  there 
escape.  Cordwood  cutters  are  the  most  constant  peril  to  good  fuel  trees  in  CaHfomia; 
but  many  a  canyon  is  safe  from  their  invasions,  because  of  lack  of  roads.  There  the 
most  magnificent  oaks  rear  their  crowns  in  security,  while  trees  of  inferior  size  and 
character,  which  grow  on  exposed  slopes  and  flats,  fall  before  the  cordwood  cutter, 
and  go  to  the  ricks  in  village  woodyards. 

The  wood  of  canyon  live  oak  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  oak  in  its  range. 
It  is  of  light  brown  color,  and  is  tough,  strong,  stiff,  and  heavy.  The  trunks  are 
generally  unsuitable  for  sawlogs,  being  too  short,  but  when  a  chance  tree  is  found  that 
may  be  cut  into  lumber,  it  is  considered  a  prize.  Trunks  are  seldom  good  for  more 
than  one  sawlog.  In  that  respect  this  oak  may  be  compared  with  the  southern  hve 
oak.  The  scarcity  of  good  hardwoods  on  the  Pacific  coast  adds  to  the  value  of  what 
may  be  found  there.  If  the  canyon  live  oak  grew  in  the  East,  and  developed  a  trunk 
of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  it  has  in  its  present  home,  it  would  attract  no  more 
attention  from  the  users  of  hardwoods  than  the  live  oak  in  the  South  attracts  now. 
But  place  makes  great  difference. 

Factories  in  California  do  not  report  the  use  of  much  of  this  oak,  yet  consider- 
able quantities  of  it  are  in  service.  The  most  important  place  found  for  it  is  in 
country  and  village  blacksmith  shops,  where  wagons  are  repaired.  Nearly  every 
piece  of  wood  which  goes  into  a  wagon,  except  the  bed,  may  be  this  oak.  Many 
persons  consider  it  the  best  wagon  timber  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  it  is  particularly 
valued  for  tongues,  not  only  for  wagons,  but  for  heavy  log  trucks  which  are  operated 
by  several  yoke  of  oxen.  The  wood  is  likewise  made  into  singletrees.  It  has  always 
been  in  use  in  California  for  pack  saddles.  That  article  is  small,  but  many  saddles 
were  formerly  made,  and  the  pack  saddle  is  still  an  important  article  in  the  mountains. 
Trains  of  mules,  horses,  and  burros  thread  the  narrow  paths,  where  wheeled  vehicles 
cannot  go,  and  deliver  supplies  to  camps  and  mines  in  remote  districts.  The  pack 
saddle's  strength  is  frequently  all  that  intervenes  between  the  load  and  destruction; 
for  the  snapping  of  a  piece  of  wood  may  let  the  pack  go  over  a  precipice  beyond 
recovery.  The  pack  trains  are  slowly  passing  out  of  use  in  the  West,  as  they  long  ago 
disappeared  from  the  "bridle  paths"  of  eastern  mountains  and  forests;  but  they  are 
still  to  be  seen  among  the  fastnesses  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  as  in  the  days  when  a 
western  poet  burst  into  inspired  song  of  the  long  pack  trains  going 
"Up  and  down  o'er  the  mountain  trail 
With  one  horse  tied  to  another's  tail." 

HucKUEBERRY  Oak  {Quercus  chrysolepis  vaccinifolia)  is  a  variety  of  canyon 
live  oak,  and  is  never  large  enough  to  supply  wood  for  any  purpose,  but  is  valuable  as 
a  covering  to  the  ground  on  exposed  mountains.  It  is  usually  a  shrub,  and  specimens 
no  more  than  a  foot  high  are  mature  and  bear  acorns  enormously  out  of  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  tree.     If  the  canyon  live  oak  of  largest  size  in  the  low  hills  bore  acorns 


310 


American  Forest  Trees 


proportionately  as  large,  they  would  be  the  size  of  barrels.  The  huckleberry  oak's 
acorns  are  set  in  their  golden  cups.  The  name  huckleberry  is  applied  because  of  a 
fancied  resemblance  of  the  leaves  to  those  of  huckleberries.  They  are  generally  less 
than  one  inch  in  length,  sometimes  not  half  an  inch.  This  unique  variety  of  oak 
ranges  on  elevated  slopes  and  ridges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  and  the  traveler 
in  climbing  to  the  peaks  is  often  grateful  for  the  privilege  of  pulling  himself  up  the 
steep  slopes  by  grasping  in  his  hands  the  tops  of  full  grown  trees. 

Palmer  Oak  {Qucrcus  chrysolepis  palmeri)  is  considered  a  variety  of  canyon 
live  oak  by  some,  but  Sudworth  believes  it  is  a  distinct  species,  and  draws  his  con- 
clusion from  forms  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit.  It  forms  large  thickets  on  foothills 
and  plateaus  near  the  southern  boundary  of  California,  eighty  miles  or  more  east  of 
San  Diego.  The  trees  do  not  attain  sufficient  size  to  give  them  commercial  im- 
portance. 


CALIFORNIA  TANBARK  OAK 


CALIFORNIA  TANBARK  OAK 

(Quercus  Densiflora) 

BOTANISTS  dispute  the  right  of  this  tree  to  the  name  of  oak,  and 
some  of  them  refuse  to  call  it  an  oak.  It  is  admitted  that  it  possesses 
characters  not  found  in  any  other  oak,  but  these  are  important  to  the 
botanist  only,  while  laymen  have  never  considered  the  tree  anything  but 
an  oak.  It  has  been  variously  called  tanbark  oak,  chestnut  oak,  Cali- 
fornia chestnut  oak,  live  oak,  and  peach  oak.  The  trunk,  branches, 
and  foliage  look  much  like  chestnut.  The  leaf  is  like  the  chestnut's,  but 
it  is  evergreen.  There  are  three  or  foiur  crops  on  the  tree  at  one  time, 
and  none  fall  until  they  are  three  or  four  years  old.  Young  leaves  are 
remarkably  woolly,  but  late  in  their  first  summer  they  get  rid  of  most 
of  the  fuzz,  and  become  thick  in  texture. 

Tanbark  oaks  are  of  all  sizes,  from  mere  shrubs  on  high  moimtains 
in  the  northern  Sierra  Nevadas  to  fine  and  symmetrical  timber  in  the 
damp  climate  of  the  fog  belt  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Oregon  line. 
The  average  height  of  matiu-e  trees  is  from  seventy  to  100  feet,  with 
diameters  up  to  six  feet  in  rare  cases,  though  more  tnmks  are  under  than 
over  two  feet  in  diameter. 

The  range  of  this  oak  reaches  southern  Oregon  on  the  north,  and 
nms  southward  three  or  fom*  hundred  miles  along  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  to  Mariposa  county,  and  six  hundred  miles  through  the 
Coast  range  to  Santa  Barbara  coimty.  The  tree  is  affected  by  climatic 
conditions,  and  where  surroundings  do  not  suit,  it  is  small  and  shrubby, 
often  less  than  ten  feet  high.  It  does  best  in  the  redwood  belt  where 
fogs  from  the  Pacific  ocean  keep  the  air  moist  and  the  ground  damp. 
It  sometimes  associates  with  Douglas  fir,  and  at  other  times  with 
California  live  oak.  If  it  grows  in  dense  side  shade  it  loses  its  lower 
branches  and  develops  a  long,  clean  trunk ;  but  in  open  ground  it  keeps  its 
limbs  until  late  in  life. 

This  is  the  most  important  source  of  tanbark  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  up  to  the  present  it  has  been  procurable  in  large  quantities.  The 
annual  output  is  nearly  40,000  tons,  and  it  commands  a  higher  price 
than  the  bark  of  any  other  oak  or  of  hemlock.  The  absence  (A  other 
adequate  tanning  materials  on  the  Pacific  coast  gives  this  tree  much 
importance.  Its  range  covers  several  thousand  square  miles,  and  the 
stand  is  fairly  good  on  much  of  it.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  destruc- 
tion of  timber  to  secure  the  bark  has  been  excessive.  What  occurred 
with  chestnut  oak  and  hemlock  in  the  East,  is  occurring  with  tanbark 
oak  in  the  West.    Trees  are  cut  and  peeled,  and  are  left  by  thousands 


314  American  Forest  Trees 

to  rot  in  the  woods,  or  to  feed  fires  and  make  them  more  destructive. 
The  bark  peelers  do  their  principal  work  in  the  Cahfomia  redwood 
region,  because  there  the  oak  is  at  its  best.  Economic  conditions  make 
the  salvage  of  the  trunks  impossible.  The  bark  can  be  hauled  to  market, 
but  the  wood  is  imsalable  at  living  prices,  after  the  long  haiil.  It  has, 
therefore,  been  usually  abandoned,  and  becomes  a  total  loss.  It  cannot 
even  be  sold  for  fuel,  because  the  country  within  reach  of  it  is  thinly 
settled,  and  wood  is  plentiful  on  every  side. 

Large  oaks  are  felled,  because  the  bark  2an  not  be  stripped  from 
the  trunks  in  any  other  way,  and  small  trees  are  not  spared.  The 
peelers  often  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  cut  them  down,  but  strip  off  the 
bark  as  high  as  a  man  can  reach,  and  leave  them  standing.  A  future 
tree  is  thus  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  a  strip  of  bark  a  few  feet  long. 
Such  trees  live  a  year  or  two,  sometimes  several  years,  before  yielding 
to  the  inevitable.  Usually,  as  a  last  expiring  effort,  they  bear  an 
abnormally  large  crop  of  acorns.  That  performance,  in  the  language  of 
the  bark  peelers,  is  "the  last  kick."  A  tanbark  slashing,  when  the 
peelers  are  ready  to  abandon  it,  is  a  sorry  spectacle.  The  barkless  and 
sun-cracked  trunks  strew  the  ground,  the  tops  and  limbs  are  piled  in 
windrows,  the  small  peeled  trees  stand  dying,  and  the  last  ricks  of  bark 
have  been  sledded  down  the  tote  roads,  marking  the  close  of  operations  in 
that  district.  A  few  months  later,  when  fire  nms  through,  the  end  of 
the  tanbark  oak  on  that  tract  is  accomplished. 

Within  recent  years  cormnendable  efforts  have  been  made  to  use 
the  wood  as  well  as  the  bark.  One  of  the  first  steps  in  that  direction 
was  to  overcome  the  prejudice  against  the  wood.  It  was  long  considered 
to  be  valueless.  That  belief  was  founded  on  the  single  fact  that  this  oak 
is  difficult  to  season.  Few  woods  in  this  country  check  as  badly  as  this, 
when  it  is  left  exposed  to  sun  and  wind  after  the  bark  has  been  removed. 
It  checks  both  radially  and  along  the  annual  rings.  The  medullary 
rays  are  broad  and  extend  much  of  the  distance  from  the  center  to  the 
outside.  These  are  nattnal  lines  of  cleavage  when  the  log  begins  to 
season  and  the  internal  stresses  develop.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
prospect  of  making  anything  out  of  timber  of  that  character  is  discourag- 
ing; but  it  has  been  accomplished,  and  tanbark  oak  is  now  a  material  of 
considerable  value. 

The  wood  has  about  the  strength  and  stiffness  of  white  oak,  while 
it  is  four  pounds  lighter  per  cubic  foot.  The  structure  is  similar  to  that 
of  California  live  oak,  but  the  pores  of  tanbark  oak  are  smaller.  They 
run  in  rows  from  center  to  chcumference.  The  medullary  rays  are 
broad  enough  to  show  well  in  quarter-sawing,  but  the  wood's  appearance 
when  so  worked  is  not  wholly  satisfactory.     The  exposed  flat  surfaces 


American  Forest  Trees  315 

of  the  rays  show  a  faint  purplish  or  violet  tinge  which  is  considered 
objectionable.  But  when  the  wood  is  worked  plain  it  is  dependable 
and  substantial.  It  makes  good  flooring,  fairly  good  furniture,  finish, 
vehicles,  and  agricultural  implements.  It  is  perishable  when  placed  in 
damp  situations,  and  this  detracts  somewhat  from  its  value  as  railway 
ties;  but  the  wood's  porous  natiu-e  indicates  that  it  will  readily  yield  to 
preservative  treatment. 

Since  the  value  of  the  wood  is  coming  to  be  imderstood  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  less  of  it  will  be  destroyed  than  formerly,  and  that  second 
growth  will  be  given  opportunity  to  hold  the  ground  when  old  stands  are 
cut.  The  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder,  but  not  every  year,  and  seedlings  come 
up  abundantly  in  sheltered  places.  Sprouts  rise  from  stumps  and  grow 
to  vigorous  trees.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  tanbark  oak  will 
hold  at  least  part  of  the  ground  where  nature  planted  it. 

Toumey  Oak  (Quercus  toumeyi).  No  oak  in  this  country  has 
smaller  leaves  than  this.  They  are  usually  less  than  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  and  they  hang  on  petioles  one-sixteenth 
inch  long.  The  leaves  have  no  lobes  or  notches.  They  remain  all  winter 
and  fall  in  the  spring  in  time  to  make  room  for  the  new  crop.  The  acorns 
are  nearly  as  long  as  the  leaves  and  ripen  in  June  of  the  first  year.  Few 
persons  ever  see  this  oak,  for  its  known  range  is  restricted  to  Mule 
mountain,  in  Cochise  county,  southeastern  Arizona.  It  attains  a  height 
of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches.  The 
trunk  is  not  only  small,  but  is  of  form  so  poor  that  it  can  never  be  of 
value  for  anything  but  fuel.  It  divides  near  the  ground  into  crooked 
branches.  The  heart  of  the  tree  is  light  brown,  the  thick  sapwood  is 
lighter. 

Woolly  Oak  (Quercus  tomenteUa)  has  apparently  been  crowded  off  the  American 
continent  and  has  taken  refuge  on  islands  off  the  southern  California  coast.  As  far 
as  known,  not  a  single  tree  stands  on  the  mainland,  but  several  groves,  with  a  few 
isolated  specimens,  are  found  on  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Rosa,  and  Catalina  islands,  where 
they  are  huddled  together  in  the  bottoms  of  sheltered  canyons.  The  leaves  are  thick, 
leathery,  and  are  toothed  like  holly.  The  trees  are  evergreen.  The  acorns  do  not 
mature  until  the  second  season.  They  are  generally  more  than  an  inch  long.  The 
scarcity  of  this  oak  relegates  it  to  an  unimportant  place  among  commercial  woods. 
This  seems  unfortunate,  for  the  appearance  of  the  wood  indicates  that  it  possesses 
excellent  properties.  No  other  oak  looks  like  this  wood.  It  is  decidedly  yellow,  and 
is  dense  and  firm.  The  medullary  rays  are  different  from  those  of  any  other  oak. 
When  seen  in  cross  section  they  are  arranged  in  short,  wavy  lines,  broadest  in  the 
middle  and  tapering  toward  both  ends.  The  pores  are  arranged  between  the  rays, 
and  follow  wavy  lines  also.  Trees  grow  with  fair  rapidity,  and  the  largest  on  the 
islands  are  seventy-five  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter. 

Barren  Oak  {Quercus  pumila)  is  called  dwarf  black  oak,  or  simply  scrub  oak. 
Its  habit  of  growing  on  barren  land  is  responsible  for  its  common  name  which  some 
people  shorten  to  "bear"  oak.     It  is  one  of  the  poorest  oaks  of  the  East,  and  it  seldom 


316  American  Forest  Trees 

grows  more  than  twenty-five  feet  high  and  a  few  inches  in  diameter.  Its  range  follows 
the  Atlantic  coast  southward  from  Mount  Desert  Island,  Maine,  to  North  Carolina. 
It  is  probably  more  abundant  on  the  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey  than  elsewhere. 
The  trunks  are  too  small  to  be  of  use  for  anything  but  fuel. 

Price  Oak  {Quercus  pricei)  is  a  California  tree,  supposed  to  be  very  local  in  its 
range,  since  it  has  not  been  found  outside  the  drainage  basin  of  a  small  stream  in 
Monterey  county.  That  locality  on  the  coast  of  California  appears  to  be  the  starting 
place  or  principal  abiding  place  of  several  tree  species,  among  which  are  Monterey 
cypress  and  Monterey  pine.  The  Price  oak  attains  a  height  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet,  and  a  diameter  of  twelve  inches  or  less;  consequently  it  is  too  small  to  be  of 
value  to  lumbermen,  even  if  it  were  abundant.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of  Cali- 
fornia Hve  oak,  and  are  believed  to  remain  two  summers  on  the  tree.  The  acorns 
mature  the  second  season. 


SHINGLE  OAK 


SHINGLE  OAK 

(Quercus  Imbricaria) 

THE  origin  of  this  tree's  name  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
controversy.  According  to  one  account  the  name  was  first  used 
by  the  French  colonists  at  Kaskaskia,  Illinois,  nearly  150  years  ago. 
They  found  that  the  wood  rived  well  and  it  was  abundant  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  settlement.  They  split  it  for  shingles  and  covered  their  cabins. 
It  was  the  best  wood  obtainable  for  the  purpose  in  that  region,  and  they 
designated  the  tree  shingle  oak,  a  name  translated  into  Latin  by  the 
botanist  Michaux  and  still  retained  as  the  tree's  botanical  name.  The 
story  of  the  name  appears  to  be  well  authenticated,  but  the  fact  cannot 
be  denied  that  as  much  reason  exists  for  another  theory.  A  person  who 
sees  a  shingle  oak  tree  in  full  leaf,  particularly  if  it  stands  in  open  ground 
where  its  foliage  has  had  opportunity  to  develop  along  natural  lines,  will 
at  once  notice  the  peculiar  and  characteristic  overlapping  of  the  leaves. 
They  suggest  the  courses  of  shingles  nailed  on  a  roof.  No  other  oak  has 
that  arrangement.  The  similitude  is  so  striking  that  it  would  be  sur- 
prising if  the  name  shingle  oak  were  not  applied. 

It  is  not  a  one-name  tree,  but  following  the  fashion,  it  carries 
several  names.  It  is  called  laurel  oak  in  some  regions.  The  form  and 
appearance  of  the  leaf  give  the  name.  The  oak  looks  like  a  mammoth 
laurel  tree  more  than  like  its  own  species.  The  shingle  oak  is  known  as 
jack  oak  in  some  parts  of  Illinois.  That  is  a  name  liable  to  be  applied  to 
any  tree  when  its  real  name  is  not  known.  In  North  Carolina  they  call 
the  tree  water  oak,  which  name,  like  jack  oak,  is  often  used  to  conceal 
ignorance  of  the  true  name.  Another  southern  species  {Quercus  nigra) 
is  properly  named  water  oak. 

Shingle  oak  requires  good  soil  for  growth  but  is  not  partial  either 
to  uplands  or  bottoms.  It  is  found  at  its  best  in  the  lower  Ohio  river 
basin  and  in  Missouri,  but  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  East.  From 
middle  Pennsylvania  its  range  extends  southward  along  the  Alleghanies 
to  northern  Georgia,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  and  west  Arkansas.  It  is 
found  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  westward  to  Kansas. 

It  manifests  a  strong  tendency  to  hybridize  with  other  oaks,  and  it 
readily  crosses  with  black  jack  oak,  pin  oak,  and  yellow  oak.  It  is 
believed  that  a  cross  between  yellow  oak  and  shingle  oak  produced  the 
species  known  as  lea  oak. 

A  mature  tree  may  be  one  hundred  feet  high  and  three  or  four  feet 
in  diameter.  It  has  a  round  or  pyramidal  attractive  crown  composed 
of  many  slender  branches  and   twigs.     The  foliage  is  distinctively 


320  American  Forest  Trees 

grouped  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs  in  star-like  clusters.  The  leaves  are 
four  or  six  inches  long,  with  wedge-shaped  or  rounded  bases,  and  are 
deep  green  and  shiny  on  the  upper  side,  but  lighter  below.  The  acorns 
are  short,  stubby,  and  rounded,  covered  one-third  of  the  way  with  thin 
shallow  cups. 

Shingle  oak  grows  rapidly,  and  it  is  often  sold  by  nurseries  which 
deal  in  ornamental  forest  trees.  It  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Massachu- 
setts. Although  it  bears  great  abundance  of  leaves,  they  are  so  arranged 
that  the  crown  seems  open.  One  may  see  through  the  branches  of  a  large 
shingle  oak,  and  it  suggests  an  airiness  not  common  with  oaks. 

Differences  of  opinion  exist  concerning  the  value  of  shingle  oak  for 
commercial  purposes.  It  belongs  in  the  black  oak  group,  and  its  wood 
goes  to  market  as  red  oak, and  apparently  is  never  listed  as  anything  else. 
It  is  never  named  in  market  reports;  shops  and  factories  never  report  it, 
and  it  has  been  pronounced  inferior  to  red  oak  in  strength  and  seasoning 
properties.  Tests  have  been  made  of  some  of  its  physical  properties, 
and  the  results  do  not  indicate  that  the  wood  belongs  with  inferior  tim- 
bers. Its  breaking  strength  is  given  at  39  per  cent  greater  than  white 
oak,  and  its  stiffness  at  28  per  cent  greater.  However,  these  values, 
which  are  calculated  from  Sargent's  tables,  are  based  on  tests  of  only  a 
few  specimens  of  the  wood,  and  fuller  investigation  might  make  revision 
necessary. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  is  said  to  check  badly  in  drying.  The 
pores  are  large  and  are  arranged  in  rows;  medullary  rays  are  broad  and 
conspicuous.  The  wood  is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood 
much  lighter.  The  broad  medullary  rays,  running  radially,  give  the 
wood  its  good  splitting  qualities. 

The  tree  is  fairly  abundant  in  diii'erent  parts  of  its  range,  and  is  cut 
and  manufactured  with  other  oaks  and  hardwoods.  Slack  coopers  use 
it  for  barrels;  box  makers  employ  it  for  crates;  chair  mills  saw  dimension 
stock  and  ship  it  to  factories  to  be  finished;  some  goes  to  furniture 
factories;  some  is  turned  for  spindles  for  grills,  and  for  balusters  for 
stairs;  other  fills  various  places  as  interior  finish  and  molding.  But  it  all 
goes  to  market  and  passes  through  factories  under  names  other  than 
its  own. 

Water  Oak  {Quercus  nigra)  has  several  names,  some  of  them 
bestowed  with  little  apparent  reason.  It  is  called  possum  oak  and  duck 
oak,  but  these  names  are  neither  descriptive  nor  definitive.  Punk  oak  is 
another  name.  It  may  refer  to  a  decayed  condition  of  the  wood,  but 
this  tree  is  no  more  affected  by  decay  than  others  of  the  same  region. 
In  Texas  it  is  sometimes  known  as  spotted  oak.  It  thrives  in  wet 
situations  though  not  actually  in  swamps.     It  prefers  margins  of  ponds. 


American  Forest  Trees  321 

banks  of  rivers,  and  low  swales  where  the  ground  water  is  just  below  the 
surface,  but  it  is  not  confined  to  such  situations.  It  does  well,  within 
its  range,  wherever  willow  oak  flourishes,  but  willow  oak  has  a  wider 
range.  The  leaves  take  on  various  forms,  and  they  change  shape  as 
they  increase  in  size.  Some  have  smooth  margins,  others  are  lobed. 
Some  are  wedge-shaped,  others  coffin-shaped.  Their  typical  form,  if  it 
may  be  said  of  them  that  they  have  a  typical  form,  is  narrow  at  the  stem 
end  and  wide  at  the  other.  To  this  is  usually  added  rudimentary  lobes, 
which  are  sometimes  nearly  as  well  developed  as  in  any  other  oak. 
Their  typical  form  is  like  the  leaf  of  the  black  jack  oak ;  but  they  are  not 
half  as  large,  and  are  thin  and  delicate,  while  the  black  jack's  leaf  is  thick 
and  leathery. 

The  range  of  water  oak  begins  in  Delaware  and  follows  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain  south  to  central  Florida,  and  through  the  Gulf  States  to 
Texas.  It  grows  as  far  north  as  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  It  keeps  clear 
of  the  Appalachian  mountain  region,  and  other  hilly  districts.  It  is 
plentiful  in  some  parts  of  its  range,  and  trunks  three  feet  in  diameter 
and  long  enough  for  two  or  three  logs  are  not  unusual,  yet  large  numbers 
of  water  oaks  may  be  seen  in  the  South  which  are  not  fit  for  sawlogs 
because  they  stand  in  open  ground  and  are  limby  down  to  ten  feet  of  the 
ground.  Many  have  been  planted  for  shade  trees  in  streets  and  in  parks, 
and  are  justly  admned.  They  grow  rapidly  and  are  extremely  graceful. 
Their  leaves  are  deciduous,  but  adhere  to  the  branches  most  of  the  year. 
South  of  the  belt  of  severe  frost,  the  old  leaves  frequently  hang  until  the 
buds  for  the  new  crop  are  opening.  The  acorns  are  bitter,  and  even  the 
southern  pine  hog  passes  them  by  until  the  pinch  of  famine  edges  up  his 
appetite. 

Water  oak  possesses  value  as  a  soiu-ce  of  lumber,  but  it  belongs 
with  the  large  class  of  oaks  which  lose  their  names  and  their  identity 
when  they  pass  the  threshold  of  the  sawmill.  They  come  out  red 
oak.  Only  in  rare  instances  is  water  oak  called  by  its  own  name  in 
the  factory  and  lumber  yard.  Wagon  makers  employ  it  for  bolsters, 
axles,  spokes,  tongues,  sandboards,  hounds,  felloes  and  reaches. 
Entire  dump  carts,  except  the  iron,  are  constructed  of  this  wood. 
Furnitiu-e  manufacturers  use  it  as  frame  material,  but  seldom 
as  the  outside  visible  parts,  though  no  reason  for  not  doing  so  is 
offered.  Objection  is  made  to  its  seasoning  qualities,  but  the  same 
objection  applies  to  most  red  oaks.  A  considerable  amount  of  water 
oak  is  cut  in  the  South  into  thick  planks  for  bridge  floors.  It  is  strong 
and  hard,  and  satisfactorily  resists  decay  in  that  place;  though,  in  com- 
mon with  the  black  oaks  generally,  it  is  liable  to  decay  when  exposed  to 
dampness.     The  wood  weighs  a  little  less  than  white  oak,  and  is  not 


322  American  Forest  Trees 

quite  as  strong  or  as  stiff.  It  is  porous,  but  the  pores  are  small,  except 
one  or  two  rows  in  the  springwood.  The  medullary  rays  are  thin  and 
not  numerous,  but  they  are  conspicuous,  and  the  wood  may  be  success- 
fully quarter-sawed.  The  lumber  has  the  appearance  of  red  oak, 
though  the  reddish  color  is  not  so  pronounced. 

Bartr.\m  Oak  {Quercus  helerophylla).  This  interesting  but  commercially 
unimportant  oak  was  named  by  Michaux  from  a  single  tree  found  in  a  field  belonging 
to  John  Bartram  near  Philadelphia  more  than  a  century  ago.  A  few  trees  have  since 
been  found  in  widely  scattered  districts  as  far  south  as  North  Carolina  and  as  far 
west  as  Texas.  Botanists  believe  it  is  a  hybrid,  one  parent  being  the  willow  oak 
(Quercus  phellos)  and  the  other  yellow  oak  (Quercus  uelutina).  It  is  probable  that 
here  may  be  witnessed  the  origin  of  a  tree  species.  The  leaves  seem  to  be  a  compro- 
mise between  the  deeply  cut  foliage  of  yellow  oak  and  the  entire  leaf  of  willow  oak. 
The  new  species  is  so  scarce  that  few  people  have  ever  seen  it. 


RED  GUM 


T 


RED  GUM 

(Liquidambar  Styraciflua) 

HIS  tree  does  not  belong  to  the  same  group  as  black  gum  and 

tupelo,  which  are  in  the  dogwood  family,  while  red  giun  is  of  the 
witch  hazel  family.  If  a  tree  is  to  be  judged  and  named  by  its  character, 
red  gum  is  more  entitled  to  the  name  "gum"  than  any  other  tree  of  this 
country,  because  it  exudes  a  yellow  resin  from  woimds  in  the  bark. 
The  botanical  name  recognizes  that  fact.  Storax  is  procured  from  a 
closely  related  tree  is  Asia,  and  has  been  known  in  commerce  for  many 
centuries.  The  other  popular  names  of  red  gum  are  sweet  gum,  liquid- 
amber,  gum,  gum  tree,  alligator  wood,  bilsted,  starleaved  gum,  and 
satin  walnut. 

The  last  name  originated  in  England  where  it  was  desirable  to 
avoid  the  name  gum  when  applied  to  the  wood  of  this  tree.  Though 
botanically  it  is  about  as  distantly  related  to  walnut  as  any  tree  can  be, 
the  figure  of  the  wood  often  suggests  walnut.  The  name  sweet  gum 
refers  to  the  pleasant  odor  of  the  resin  which  is  sometimes  used  in 
France,  and  probably  elsewhere,  to  perfume  gloves.  Alligator  wood 
is  descriptive  of  warty  excrescences  on  the  bark  of  some  trees,  but 
they  are  not  common  to  all.  Starleaved  gum  relates  to  the  leaf.  It  is 
a  lopsided  star — a  six  point  star  with  one  point  missing. 

This  tree's  range  in  the  United  States  extends  from  Connecticut  to 
Texas  and  as  far  northwest  of  the  Alleghanies  as  Missoiu-i  and  Illinois. 
It  reaches  its  greatest  size  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  in  rich  bottom 
land  which  is  subject  to  repeated  inundation.  It  is  not,  however,  as 
purely  a  swamp  tree  as  tupelo  and  cypress.  It  grows  well  on  land  which 
is  never  inundated,  but  it  needs  plenty  of  moisttue.  The  largest  speci- 
mens exceed  a  height  of  120  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four;  but  logs  from 
eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  are  the  usual  sizes.  The  tree's  range  extends 
southward  through  Mexico  into  Central  America. 

The  rise  of  red  gum  lumber  into  prominence  forms  an  interesting 
chapter  in  the  industry.  It  was  formerly  considered  so  difficult  to 
season  that  few  mills  cared  to  deal  with  it,  but  that  difficulty  has  been 
largely  overcome.  In  the  past,  gum,  having  no  market  value,  was  left 
standing  after  logging;  or,  where  the  land  was  cleared  for  farming,  was 
girdled  and  allowed  to  rot,  and  then  felled  and  burned.  Not  only 
were  the  trees  a  total  loss  to  the  farmer,  but,  from  their  great  size  and  the 
labor  required  to  handle  them,  they  were  so  serious  an  obstruction  as 
often  to  preclude  the  clearing  of  valuable  land.  Now  that  there  is  a 
market  for  the  timber,  it  is  profitable  to  cut  gum  with  other  hardwoods, 


326  American  Forest  Trees 

and  land  can  be  cleared  more  cheaply.     This  increase  in  the  value  of 
gum  timber  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  South  in  many  ways. 

Throughout  its  entire  life  red  gum  is  intolerant  of  shade.  As  a 
rule  seedlings  appear  only  in  clearings  or  in  open  spots  in  the  forest.  It 
is  seldom  that  an  overtopped  tree  is  found,  for  the  gum  dies  quickly  if 
suppressed,  and  is  consequently  nearly  always  a  dominant  or  inter- 
mediate tree.  In  a  hardwood  bottom  forest,  the  timber  trees  are  all  of 
nearly  the  same  age  over  considerable  areas,  and  there  is  little  young 
growth  to  be  found  in  the  older  stands.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  in- 
tolerance of  most  of  the  swamp  species. 

Red  gum  reproduces  both  by  seed  and  by  sprouts,  fairly  abun- 
dantly every  year,  but  about  once  in  three  years  there  is  a  heavy  pro- 
duction. In  the  Mississippi  valley  the  abandoned  fields  on  which 
young  stands  of  red  gum  have  sprung  up  are,  for  the  most  part,  being 
rapidly  cleared  again.  The  second  growth  here  is  considered  of  little 
worth  in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the  land  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

A  large  amount  of  red  gum  growing  in  the  South  can  be  economi- 
cally transported  from  the  forests  to  the  mills  only  by  means  of  the 
streams,  owing  to  the  expense  of  putting  in  railroads  solely  for  handling 
the  timber.  Green  red  gum,  however,  is  so  heavy  that  it  scarcely  floats 
and,  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  various  methods  of  driving  out  the  sap 
before  the  logs  are  thrown  into  the  river  have  been  tried.  One  method 
is  to  girdle  the  trees  and  leave  them  standing  a  year.  That  partly 
seasons  them,  but  does  not  give  time  for  the  sapwood  to  decay.  The 
logs  from  such  trees  float  readily,  and  the  swamps  and  streams  are 
utilized  to  carry  the  logs  to  the  mills. 

Some  years  ago  that  method  of  seasoning  red  gum  was  extensively 
advertised  in  England  by  contractors  who  sold  paving  blocks  of  this 
wood.  It  was  claimed  that  the  common  defects  of  red  gum  were  thus 
overcome.  Large  sales  of  paving  material  were  made,  particularly  in 
London,  and  red  gum  was  popular  for  a  time,  but  it  finally  lost  its  hold 
as  a  paving  wood  in  competition  with  certain  Australian  woods.  The 
theory  that  by  girdling  a  tree  and  allowing  it  to  die,  the  amount  of  heart- 
wood  will  be  increased  has  been  abandoned.  In  selecting  trees  for 
cutting,  those  with  doty  tops,  rotten  stumps,  and  heavy  bark,  indi- 
cations of  an  old  tree  which  contains  a  very  small  proportion  of  sapwood, 
are  now  chosen.  These  are  found  mainly  in  the  drier  localities.  In  low, 
wet  places  the  trees  have  more  sapwood  and  are  smaller.  The  heart- 
wood  forms  while  the  tree  is  living,  not  after  it  dies. 

The  rapidity  with  which  red  gum  has  come  into  use  in  this  country 
and  elsewhere  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  wood's  real  value.     Its  range 


American  Forest  Trees  327 

of  uses  extends  from  the  most  common  articles,  such  as  boxes  and  crates, 
to  those  of  highest  class,  like  furniture  and  interior  finish.  It  is  only 
moderately  strong  and  stiff,  and  is  not  a  competitor  of  hickory,  ash, 
maple,  and  oak  in  vehicle  manufacturing  and  other  lines  where  strength 
or  elasticity  is  demanded ;  but  in  nearly  all  other  classes  of  wood  uses, 
red  gmn  has  made  itself  a  place.  It  has  pushed  to  the  front  in  spite  of 
prejudice.  As  soon  as  the  difficulties  of  seasoning  were  mastered,  its 
victory  was  won.  Its  annual  use  in  Michigan,  the  home  and  center  of 
hardwood  supply,  exceeds  20,000,000  feet  in  manufactured  articles,  ex- 
clusive of  what  is  employed  in  rough  form.  In  Illinois,  the  most 
extensive  wood-manufacturing  state  in  the  Union,  red  gum  stands 
second  in  amount  among  the  hardwoods,  the  only  one  above  it  being 
white  oak.  In  Kentucky,  only  white  oak  and  hickory  are  more  im- 
portant among  the  factory  woods,  while  in  Arkansas,  where  the  annual 
amount  of  this  wood  in  factories  exceeds  100,000,000  feet,  it  heads  the 
list  of  hardwoods. 

As  a  veneer  material,  it  is  demanded  in  four  times  the  quantity  of 
any  other  species.  The  veneer  is  nearly  all  rotary  cut,  and  it  goes  into 
cheap  and  expensive  commodities,  from  berry  crates  to  pianos. 

The  wood  weighs  36.8.3  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  straight- 
grained,  the  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  not  prominent,  the  pores 
diffuse  but  small,  and  the  summerwood  forms  only  a  narrow  band,  like 
a  line.  The  annual  rings  do  not  produce  much  figure,  but  wood  has 
another  kind  of  figure,  the  kind  that  characterizes  English  and  Cir- 
cassian walnuts,  smoky,  cloudy,  shaded  series  of  rings,  independent  of 
the  growth  rings.  They  have  no  definite  width  or  constant  color,  but 
the  color  is  usually  deeper  than  the  body  of  the  wood.  This  figiu-e  is 
one  of  the  most  prized  properties  of  red  gum.  It  is  that  which  makes 
the  wood  the  closest  known  imitator  of  Circassian  walnut. 

All  red  gum  is  not  figured,  and  that  which  is  figured  may  be  worked 
in  a  way  to  conceal  or  make  little  use  of  the  figure.  It  shows  best  in 
rotary  cut  veneer  and  tangentially  sawed  lumber.  Various  woods  are 
imitated  with  red  gum.  It  is  stained  or  painted  to  look  like  oak,  cherry, 
mahogany,  and  even  maple. 

Some  trees  have  thin  sapwood,  and  others  are  all  sapwood.  This 
peculiarity  sometimes  leads  to  misunderstandings  in  lumber  transactions. 
A  buyer  specifies  red  gum,  expecting  to  get  red  heartwood,  but  the  seller 
delivers  lumber  cut  from  the  red  gum  tree,  though  light  colored  sapwood 
may  predominate.  Properly  speaking,  the  name  is  applied  to  the  tree 
as  a  whole  and  does  not  refer  to  any  particular  color  of  wood  in  the  tree. 
The  term  "red"  is  said  to  have  referred  originally  to  the  color  of  autumn 
leaves,  and  not  to  the  wood. 


328  American  Forest  Trees 

The  fruit  of  red  gum  is  a  bur,  midway  in  appearance  and  size 
between  the  sycamore  ball  and  the  chestnut  bur.  It  hangs  on  the  tree 
until  late  in  winter.  The  resin  which  exudes  from  wounds  in  the  bark  is 
of  much  commercial  importance  and  is  shipped  from  New  Orleans  and 
Mexican  ports.  Near  the  northern  limit  of  the  species'  range  the  trees 
yield  little  resin,  but  it  is  abundant  farther  south.  In  the  southern 
states  it  is  used  locally  as  chewing  gum.  It  is  known  commercially  as 
copalm  balm. 

Witch  Hazeu  (Hamamelis  virginiana)  is  a  cousin  to  red  gum,  but  there  is 
small  resemblance.  It  is  known  as  winter  bloom,  snapping  hazel,  and  spotted  alder. 
Its  range  extends  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Nebraska,  Texas,  and  Florida.  It  reaches  its 
largest  size  among  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains  where  the  extreme  height  is 
sometimes  forty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  eighteen  inches;  but  few  people  have  ever 
seen  a  witch  hazel  that  large.  It  is  usually  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high  and  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  much  like  that  of  red  gum,  being  diffuse- 
porous  with  obscure  medullary  rays,  and  a  thin  line  of  summerwood.  It  is  of  httle 
commercial  use;  in  fact,  no  report  has  been  found  that  a  single  foot  of  it  has  ever  been 
used  for  any  purpose.  Yet  it  is  a  most  interesting  little  tree.  It  blooms  in  the  fall, 
sometimes  as  late  as  the  middle  of  November.  Its  rusty  summer  foliage  turns  yellow 
in  autumn,  and  as  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  the  tree  bursts  into  delicately-scented 
golden  flowers,  the  most  visible  part  of  each  consisting  of  four  petals  which  float  out 
like  streamers.  At  the  same  time  that  flowers  are  scenting  the  air,  the  seeds  are 
discharging.  A  full  year  is  required  to  ripen  them ;  and  when  dry,  cold  weather  comes, 
the  contraction  of  their  envelopes  shoots  them  with  sufficient  force  to  send  them 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  They  depend  on  neither  wings,  birds,  nor  squirrels  to  scatter 
them.  The  origin  of  the  name  witch  hazel  is  disputed ;  but  the  person  who  examines 
the  open-topped  button  which  holds  the  black  seeds,  and  notes  the  fantastic  resem- 
blance to  a  weasen  face,  will  feel  satisfied  that  he  can  guess  the  origin  of  the  name. 
The  tree's  bark  is  used  for  medicine,  in  extracts  and  gargles. 


BLACK  GUM 


BLACK  GUM 

(Nyssa  Syhatica) 

BLACK  gum  grows  from  the  Kennebec  river  in  Maine  to  Tampa  bay, 
Florida;  westward  to  southern  Ontario  and  southern  Michigan; 
southward  through  Missouri,  as  far  as  the  Brazos  river  in  Texas.  The 
names  by  which  it  is  known  in  different  regions  are  black  gum, 
Boiu:  gum,  tupelo,  pepperidge,  wild  pear  tree,  gum,  and  yellow  gum. 

The  leaves  of  black  gum  are  simple  and  alternate;  not  serrate. 
They  are  attached  by  very  short  petioles,  which  are  fuzzy  when  young; 
they  are  a  rich,  brilliant  green  above  and  lighter  below;  rather  thick, 
with  prominent  midrib.  As  early  as  the  latter  part  of  August  the  leaves 
commence  to  turn  a  gorgeous  red.  The  flowers  are  greenish  and 
inconspicuous,  growing  in  thick  clusters,  the  staminate  ones  small  and 
plentiful,  the  pistillate  ones  larger.  They  bloom  in  April,  May  or  June. 
The  fruit  of  black  giun  is  a  drupe  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long; 
inside  of  it  is  a  rough,  oval  pit ;  the  pulp  is  acrid  until  mellowed  by  frost. 

The  bad  name  given  to  black  gum  by  early  settlers  of  this  country 
has  stayed  with  it,  though  the  faults  found  with  it  then,  should  hold  no 
longer.  The  pioneers  were  nearly  all  clearers  of  farms.  They  went  into 
the  woods  with  ax,  maul,  mattock,  wedges  and  gluts,  and  made  fields 
and  fenced  them.  The  fencing  was  as  important  as  the  clearing,  for  the 
woods  were  alive  with  hogs,  cattle,  and  horses,  and  the  crop  was  safe 
nowhere  except  behind  an  eight-rail  staked  and  ridered  fence.  The 
farmer  mauled  the  rails  from  timber  which  he  cut  in  the  clearing, 
and  there  it  was  that  he  and  black  giun  got  acquainted.  The  oak, 
chestnut,  walnut,  cherry,  yellow  poplar,  and  red  cedar  were  split  into 
rails  and  built  into  fences ;  but  black  gimi  never  made  a  fence  rail.  No 
combination  of  maul,  wedge,  glut,  determination,  and  elbow  grease  ever 
split  a  black  gum  log  within  the  borders  of  the  American  continent.  An 
iron  wedge,  driven  to  its  head  in  the  end  of  a  rail  cut,  will  not  open  a 
crack  large  enough  to  insert  the  point  of  a  pocket  knife.  In  fact,  it  is 
as  easy  to  split  the  log  crosswise  as  endwise.  Consequently,  the  early 
farmers  heaped  their  anathemas  and  maranathas  on  black  gum  and 
passed  it  by. 

Nevertheless,  the  tree  had  its  virtues  even  in  the  eyes  of  the  rail- 
splitters  ;  for,  though  it  was  imwedgeable,  it  helped  along  the  fence  rail 
industry  in  a  very  substantial  way  by  fiuTiishing  the  material  of  which 
mauls  were  made.  It  drove  the  wedges  and  gluts  which  opened  other 
timbers.  About  the  only  maul  that  would  beat  out  more  rails  than  one 
of  black  giun  was  that  made  of  a  chestnut  oak  knot.    The  oak  beetle's 


332  American  Forest  Trees 

only  advantage  over  gum  was  that  it  was  harder  and  wore  longer.  So 
involved  and  interlaced  are  the  fibers  of  black  gum,  that  they  cross  one 
another  not  only  at  right  angles,  but  at  every  conceivable  angle.  This 
can  be  seen  in  examining  very  thin  pieces  with  a  magnifying  glass. 

The  wood  is  not  hard,  but  is  moderately  strong,  and  stiff.  It  has 
been  compared  with  hickory,  but  it  is  so  inferior  in  almost  every  essen- 
tial that  no  comparison  is  justified. 

Black  gum  weighs  39.61  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  very  porous, 
but  the  pores  are  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  and  are  diffused 
through  the  wood  and  form  no  distinct  lines  or  groups.  The  summer- 
wood  is  a  thin  dark  line,  not  prominent  enough  to  clearly  delimit  the 
yearly  rings  of  growth.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous,  but  ver}^  thin. 
In  quarter-sawed  wood  they  produce  a  luster,  but  the  individual  rays 
are  practically  invisible.  The  wood  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil. 

The  standing  tree  is  apt  to  fall  a  victim  to  the  agencies  of  decay. 
Hollow  trunks,  mere  shells,  are  not  uncommon.  The  entire  heartwood 
is  liable  to  fall  away.  The  pioneers  cut  these  hollow  trees,  and  sawing 
them  in  lengths  of  about  two  feet,  made  beehives  of  them.  They  called 
them  gums  because  they  were  cut  from  gum  trees.  Larger  sizes,  used 
in  place  of  barrels,  were  also  called  gums,  but  these  were  usually  made 
from  sycamores.  The  black  gum  is  not  usually  large.  Individuals 
have  been  measured  that  were  five  feet  in  diameter  and  more  than  a 
hundred  in  height,  but  an  average  of  sixty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter 
is  probably  too  much,  except  in  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains 
where  the  species  attains  its  largest  size. 

It  is  a  tree  which  will  always  be  easily  recognized  after  it  has  been 
seen  and  identified  once.  Its  general  outline,  particularly  when  leaves 
are  off,  is  different  from  other  trees  associated  with  it.  It  might  possibly 
be  mistaken  for  persimmon  unless  looked  at  closely;  but  there  are 
easily-recognized  points  of  difference.  Its  branches  are  very  small, 
slender,  and  short.  Its  bark  is  rougher  than  that  of  any  other  gum,  and  is 
much  darker  in  color.  It  is  the  bark's  color  that  gives  the  tree  its  name. 
The  leaves  have  smooth  edges.  In  the  fall  they  change  to  gorgeous 
red,  and  one  of  their  peculiarities  is  that  half  a  leaf  may  be  red  while 
the  other  half  remains  green.  Toward  the  end  of  the  season,  the  green 
disappears.  The  dark  blue  drupes  ripen  in  October.  They  do  not  seem 
to  be  food  for  any  living  creature. 

Sawmills  include  black  gum  with  tupelo  in  reporting  lumber  cut, 
and  generally  call  both  of  them  gum  without  distinction.  The  woods  are 
quite  different,  and  neither  the  standing  tree  nor  the  lumber  of  one  need 
be  mistaken  for  the  other.     The  range  of  black  gum  is  much  more 


American  Forest  Trees  333 

extensive  than  that  of  tupelo.  Gum  lumber  cut  north  of  the  Ohio 
and  Potomac  rivers  may  be  safely  classed  as  black  gum,  though  a  little 
of  both  red  and  tupelo  gum  is  found  north  of  those  streams.  In  the 
South,  the  species  cannot  be  separated  by  regions,  for  all  the  gums  grow 
from  Texas  to  Virginia.  The  total  annual  output  of  black  gum  is  not 
known,  but  some  operators  estimate  it  at  about  20,000,000  feet  a  year,  or 
nearly  one-fourth  as  much  as  tupelo. 

The  bulk  of  black  gum  lumber  is  used  in  the  rough,  for  floors, 
sheathing,  frames,  and  scaffolds;  but  a  considerable  portion  is  further 
manufactured.  The  amounts  thus  used  annually  have  been  ascertained 
for  a  few  states,  and  furnish  a  basis  for  estimates  for  the  whole  country: 
Mississippi,  7,000  feet;  Maryland,  85,000;  Illinois,  120,000;  Louisiana, 
120,000;  Missouri,  190,000;  Texas,  360,000;  Massachusetts,  475,000; 
Alabama,  486,000. 

The  uses  are  general,  except  that  the  wood  is  not  employed  where 
attractive  figiu-e  is  required,  for  black  gum  is  as  plain  as  cottonwood.  It 
is  not  displeasing  in  its  plainness,  for  the  surface  finishes  nicely  with  a 
soft  gloss  which,  except  that  it  lacks  figure,  suggests  the  sap  of  red  gum. 
It  is  specially  useful  in  situations  where  noncleavability  is  required. 
Black  gum  mallets  for  stone  masons  and  woodworkers  are  in  the  market. 
Mine  rollers  require  a  much  larger  amount.  The  entire  85,000  feet 
reported  in  Maryland  was  made  into  such  rollers.  They  furnish  the 
bearing  for  the  rope  that  hauls  the  car  up  the  incline  out  of  the  coal  pit. 
Its  toughness  qualifies  it  for  wagon  hubs,  but  it  is  sometimes  objected  to 
because  its  softness  causes  the  mortises  to  wear  larger  where  the  spokes 
are  inserted,  and  the  wheel  does  not  stand  as  well  as  when  the  hubs  are 
of  good  oak.  Early  farmers  and  lumbermen  preferred  black  gum  for 
ox  yokes,  and  some  are  still  seen  where  oxen  are  used;  but  many  other 
woods  are  as  strong  and  equally  as  serviceable  for  yokes.  Rollers  of  this 
wood  for  glass  factories  are  common.  It  is  made  into  hatters'  blocks 
where  a  wood  is  wanted  which,  when  thoroughly  seasoned,  will  hold  its 
shape.  It  is  less  popular  for  this  purpose  than  yellow  poplar.  One  of 
the  best  places  for  black  gum  is  in  the  manufacture  of  bored  water  pipe. 
The  wood's  interlaced  fiber  prevents  splitting  under  the  internal  stress 
due  to  hydrostatic  pressure.  The  shell  of  such  pipes  can  be  thinner 
than  with  most  woods.  A  drawback  is  found  in  the  non-durable  qual- 
ities of  black  gum.  However,  the  internal  pressvu-e  of  water  keeps  the 
wood  thoroughly  saturated,  and  prolongs  its  life  when  used  as  pipes. 

The  makers  of  firearms  employ  black  gum  as  gunstocks  and  pistol 
grips.  The  wood  is  stained  to  make  it  darker.  It  is  cut  by  the  rotary 
process  into  cheap  veneer  and  is  made  into  baskets  and  berry  crates. 
Less  trouble  with  the  veneer,  on  account  of  breaking,  is  experienced 


334 


American  Forest  Trees 


than  might  be  expected  of  a  wood  so  cross-grained.  It  is  sawed  into 
thin  lumber  for  boxes  for  shipping  coffee  and  other  groceries.  It  is  a 
substitute  for  cottonwood  and  yellow  poplar  in  the  manufacture  of 
certain  lines  of  woodenware, notably,  ironing  boards,  rolling  pins,  potato 
mashers,  and  chopping  bowls.  It  is  made  into  interior  finish  for  houses; 
and  furniture  manufacturers  find  many  places  where  it  is  a  serviceable 
material.  Musical  instrument  makers  employ  it,  particularly  as  trusses 
for  pianos,  and  in  frames  of  pipe  organs.  In  Louisiana  it  is  converted 
into  excelsior,  and  in  Mississippi  into  broom  handles,  and  parts  of 
agricultural  implements,  particularly  hoppers  and  seedboxes. 

All  gums  are  hard  to  season,  and  this  one  is  no  exception.     It 
checks  badly,  but  the  checks  are  usually  very  small. 


TLPELO 


T 


TUPELO 

(Nyssa  Aquatica) 

UPELO  is  said  to  be  an  Indian  name.  White  men  have  applied  it 
to  three  species  of  gum,  all  of  the  same  genus,  namely,  black  gum 
(Nyssa  sylvatica), soui  tupelo  (Nyssa  ogeche), and  tupelo  (Nyssa  aquatica). 
Probably,  the  name  tupelo  applies  as  well  to  one  as  to  the  other,  for  it  is 
said  to  refer  to  the  drupe-like  fruit ;  but  custom  confines  the  name  to  the 
species  now  under  consideration.  It  is  largest  of  the  three  species,  most 
abundant,  and  most  important.  Sour  gum  is  heard  in  Arkansas  and  Mis- 
souri, swamp  tupelo  in  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana,  cotton  gum  in  the 
two  Carolinas  and  Florida,  wild  olive  tree  in  Louisiana,  and  olive  tree  in 
Mississippi. 

The  range  of  tupelo  extends  from  Virginia  along  the  coast  to 
Florida,  northward  in  the  Mississippi  valley  to  southern  Illinois,  and 
westward  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  It  prefers  swamps  and  attains-largest 
size  in  low  ground  which  is  subject  to  frequent  overflow.  The  tree  will 
stand  in  several  feet  of  water  the  greater  part  of  the  year  without 
injury.  It  is  closely  associated  with  cypress,  the  planer  tree,  and  other 
species  which  grow  in  deep  swamps. 

Tupelo  has  not  figiu-ed  much  in  tree  literature  outside  the  books 
of  botanists.  Travelers  and  local  writers  have  paid  it  little  attention. 
It  has  not  been  remarkable  for  anything  in  the  past,  and  has  escaped 
observation  to  a  large  extent  because  it  grows  in  swamps  and  along 
bayous,  remote  from  the  usual  routes  of  travel.  Its  flowers  attracted  no 
attention,  its  fruit  was  worthless,  and  the  early  settlers  did  not  put  them- 
selves to  trouble  to  prociu-e  the  wood  for  any  purpose.  That  was  the 
situation  from  the  early  settlement  of  the  country  where  this  species  is 
found  up  to  a  very  recent  period  when  economic  conditions  began  to 
bring  tupelo  into  notice. 

It  first  attracted  attention  in  the  markets  as  a  substitute  for  yellow 
poplar.  That  was  brought  about  by  an  attempt  to  pass  it  as  poplar. 
The  growing  scarcity  of  that  wood  in  the  region  about  Chesapeake  bay 
led  to  the  trial  of  tupelo.  It  was  sold  as  bay  poplar,  and  the  purchaser 
was  left  to  infer  that  it  was  poplar  cut  in  the  region  tributary  to  Chesa- 
peake bay.  Probably  few  buyers  were  deceived,  but  they  found  the 
wood  a  fair  substitute  for  the  yellow  poplar  which  they  had  been  piu-- 
chasing  in  the  Baltimore  and  Norfolk  markets.  It  is  known  as  bay 
poplar  yet  in  many  localities.  It  goes  to  England  as  such.  One  of  its 
most  important  uses  in  that  country  is  as  casing  for  electric  wire  fittings. 
It  has,  however,  many  other  important  uses  in  England  and  on  the 


338  American  Forest  Trees 

continent.  It  is  claimed  that  it  may  be  stained  to  imitate  Circassian 
walnut  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  This  is  possible,  but  most 
probably  tupelo  has  been  confused  with  red  gum  which  is  a  well-known 
substitute  for  Circassian  walnut. 

Tupelo  trees  attain  a  height  from  seventy  to  a  hundred  feet,  and  a 
diameter  of  two  to  four  feet  above  the  swelled  base.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  bark  suggests  both  yellow  poplar  and  red  gum.  Trees, 
have  a  habit  of  forking  near  the  tops.  The  leaves  are  five  or  seven 
inches  long,  sometimes  with  smooth  margins,  and  often  with  a  few 
sharp  points.  Flowers  appear  in  March  and  April,  and  fruit  ripens 
early  in  Autumn.  It  is  a  dark  purple,  tough-skinned  drupe,  about 
an  inch  long. 

The  wood  weighs  32.37  poimds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  soft,  and  has 
about  three-fourths  the  strength  and  little  more  than  half  the  stiffness  of 
white  oak.  It  is  not  well  suited  to  places  where  strength  and  rigidity  are 
required.  The  fibers  are  interwoven,  making  the  wood  difficult  to  split. 
The  heart  is  brown,  often  nearly  white;  the  sap  wood  is  very  thick;  and 
the  annual  rings  are  not  clearly  defined,  because  of  the  similarity  be- 
tween the  springwood  and  summerwood.  The  pores  are  small  but 
mmierous,  and  are  scattered  evenly  through  the  whole  annual  ring. 
The  wood  of  roots  differs  from  that  of  the  trunk  more  than  is  usual  with 
hardwoods.  It  is  very  light,  and  has  been  long  employed  in  the  South 
as  a  substitute  for  cork  as  floats  for  fish  nets. 

Tupelo  is  often  logged  with  cypress.  The  two  trees  grow  in  close 
association  in  deep  swamps.  The  butt  cuts  of  tupelo  are  so  heavy  that 
they  float  deep,  or  even  go  to  the  bottom.  It  was  formerly  customary, 
and  still  is  to  some  extent,  to  girdle  trees  whose  trunks  were  to  be 
floated  to  the  mills.  In  the  course  of  one  season  the  standing  trees  dry 
sufficiently  for  the  logs  to  float.  At  other  times,  trees  are  cut  green,  the 
logs  are  skidded  and  allowed  to  dry  some  months  before  they  are  rafted 
or  floated  to  the  mills.  The  sapwood  is  liable  to  decay,  even  in  the  brief 
period  while  the  logs  are  on  the  skids.  The  wood  may  be  protected 
against  decay  to  some  extent  by  smearing  the  ends  of  the  logs  with  tar 
or  some  other  substance  which  prevents  the  spores  of  decay-producing 
fungus  from  entering. 

The  seasoning  of  tupelo  was  formerly  a  problem  exceedingly 
vexatious  to  the  lumberman.  The  wood  is  full  of  water,  and  warping 
was  one  of  the  troubles  which  was  constantly  encountered.  Finally  ex- 
perience gained  the  mastery,  and  seasoning  troubles  are  fewer  now. 
Shrinkage  of  four  or  five  per  cent  is  not  unusual  in  passing  lumber  from 
the  green  to  dry  state. 

Tupelo  is  like  hickory  in  one  respect — factories  use  more  wood 


American  Forest  Trees  339 

than  the  sawmills  cut.  The  shops  and  manufacturing  plants  of  ten 
states  use  as  much  tupelo  as  is  cut  by  all  the  sawmills  in  the  United 
States.  These  states  are  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Mary- 
land, Michigan,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  North  Carolina,  and  Texas. 
The  reason  for  factory  use  exceeding  the  sawmill  cut  is  that  much  reaches 
factories,  in  the  form  of  veneer,  which  does  not  pass  through  a  sawmill. 
The  lumber  output  of  most  of  the  timber  trees  of  this  country  is  from 
one-third  to  one-half  greater  than  the  factory  use.  The  difference 
represents  the  rough  lumber  used,  and  which  never  goes  to  a  factory. 

Tupelo  lately  entered  the  general  market,  but  the  yearly  demand 
now  exceeds  100,000,000  feet.  Its  uses  range  from  boxes  and  cheap 
handles  to  interior  finish  and_material  for  musical  instruments.  It  is 
particularly  liked  for  containers  for  berries  and  small  fruits,  on  their  way 
to  market.     Its  whiteness  and  clean  appearance  fit  it  for  that  use. 

Higher  grades  of  shipping  boxes  are  also  made.  Wholesale  grocers 
order  largely  of  this  wood  for  spice,  coffee,  and  tea  boxes.  These 
commodities  are  exacting  in  their  requirements  because  their  odor, 
which  is  often  regarded  as  the  criterion  of  their  value,  must  not  be 
impaired.  A  wood  with  an  odor  of  its  own  is  immediately  ruled  out. 
Cigar  box  makers  use  tupelo,  sometimes  as  thin  lumber  for  the  whole 
box,  but  usually  as  backing  over  which  to  lay  a  thin  veneer  of 
Spanish  cedar.     Plug  tobacco  boxes  are  also  made  of  tupelo. 

In  Illinois  and  Michigan  tupelo  is  listed  among  woods  manufac- 
tiu-ed  into  pianos,  organs,  mandolins,  and  guitars.  In  Maryland  they 
make  scows  and  barges  of  it.  In  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  it  is  worked 
into  excelsior  and  slack  cooperage  stock.  It  is  a  favorite  wood  in  Miss- 
issippi for  pumplogs  and  broom  handles.  Its  leading  reported  use  in 
Texas  is  for  porch  columns.  In  Missouri  it  is  manufactured  into  laundry 
appliances,  such  as  washboards,  clothes  racks,  and  ironing  boards.  In 
nearly  all  manufacturing  centers  of  the  country  it  is  made  into  furniture 
and  interior  finish.  It  is  frequently  substituted  for  yellow  poplar  in 
panels,  not  only  in  furniture  and  cabinet  work,  but  in  carriage  bodies. 

The  supply  of  tupelo  in  southern  forests  is  fairly  large,  and  will 
meet  demand  for  some  years,  but  it  is  a  tree  of  slow  growth,  and  when 
present  stands  are  cut,  a  new  supply  will  probably  never  come. 

Sour  Tupelo  (Nyssa  ogeche)  appears  to  be  the  only  member  of  the  gum  group 
whose  fruit  is  of  any  value  to  man,  and  it  is  not  very  important.  The  large,  dull  red 
drupes  ripen  in  July  and  August,  and  sometimes  hang  on  the  trees  until  late  fall, 
allowing  ample  time  for  gathering  them.  They  are  very  sour,  for  which  reason  the 
tree  is  called  sour  gum.  The  fruit  is  put  through  a  pickUng  process  which  renders  it 
palatable  and  it  is  not  an  infrequent  article  on  southern  pantry  shelves.  The  range 
of  the  tree  is  confined  to  the  region  near  the  coast  from  the  southern  border  of  South 
Carolina,  through  the  Ogeechee  river  valley  in  Georgia,  to  northern  and  western 


340  American  Forest  Trees 

Florida.  The  botanical  name  refers  to  the  river  along  whose  course  the  trees  are 
most  abundant.  Local  names  are  gopher  plum,  Ogeechee  lime,  and  wild  lime.  The 
tree  is  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high,one  or  two  in  diameter,  and  is  often  divided  in  several 
stems.  Its  wood  is  lightest  of  the  gums,  weighing  only  28.75  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
It  is  diffuse-porous,  and  the  springwood  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  summer- 
wood.  The  annual  rings  of  growth  are  indistinct,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  thin 
and  inconspicuous.  The  wood  is  weak,  soft,  tough,  and  white,  and  little  difference  is 
apparent  between  heart  and  sapwood.  The  flowers  are  rich  in  honey  and  are  valuable 
to  bee  keepers.  It  appears  that  no  reports  exist  of  the  use  of  this  wood  for  any 
purpose.     It  is  not  abundant  anywhere. 

Water  Gum  (Nyssa  biflora)  is  a  member  of  the  giun  group,  and  is  of  small 
importance.  Trees  above  thirty  feet  high  are  unusual,  and  the  trunk  is  of  poor  form, 
owing  to  its  greatly  enlarged  base.  This  gum  is  found  on  the  margins  of  small  ponds 
in  the  pine  barrens  from  North  Carolina  to  the  Gulf  coast.  The  leaves  turn  purple 
and  red  in  the  fall,  and  are  then  conspicuous  objects.  The  fruit  is  a  blue  drupe  about 
a  third  of  an  inch  long.     The  wood  is  light,  tough,  and  diiScult  to  spUt. 


BLACK  WALNUT 


BLACK  WALNUT 

{Juglans  Nigra) 

THIS  tree  has  few  names.  It  is  called  walnut,  black  walnut,  and 
walnut-tree.  The  color  of  the  wood  and  bark  is  responsible  for 
the  word  black  in  the  name,  though  some  people  use  the  adjective  to 
distinguish  the  tree  from  butternut  which  is  often  known  as  white 
walnut.  The  natural  range  of  black  walnut  covers  600,000  or  700,000 
square  miles,  and  it  has  been  extended  by  planting.  Its  northern  limit 
stretches  from  New  York  to  Minnesota,  its  southern  from  Florida  to 
Texas.  It  is  difficult  to  say  where  the  species  found  its  highest  develop- 
ment in  the  primeval  forests,  for  very  large  trees  were  reported  in  New 
York,  among  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains,  in  the  Ohio  valley, 
and  beyond  the  Mississippi  in  Arkansas, Oklahoma,  Missouri,  and  Kansas. 
The  wood  cut  in  Ohio  and  Indiana  has  been  of  greater  commercial  im- 
portance than  that  from  any  other  portion  of  its  range,  but  that  has  been 
due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  it  came  into  market  before  the  best  of  the 
forest  growth  had  been  destroyed  in  those  states,  and  instead  of  burning 
it  or  mauling  it  into  rails,  as  eastern  farmers  did  in  early  times,  the 
farmers  of  the  Ohio  valley  sold  their  walnut.  Early  in  the  history  of 
black  walnut  lumbering,  Indiana  and  Ohio  came  to  the  front  as  the  most 
important  sources  of  supply,  and  they  still  hold  that  position,  not- 
withstanding the  original  forests  of  those  states  were  supposed  to  be 
nearly  exhausted  long  ago.  The  states  cutting  most  black  walnut  in 
1910,  in  the  order  named,  were  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Missouri,  West  Virginia,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  Iowa. 
During  the  period  from  1860  to  1880  black  walnut  was  in  much 
demand  for  furniture,  and  the  largest  yearly  cut  was  125,000,000  feet. 
It  was  during  that  period  of  twenty  years  that  operators  pushed  into  all 
of  the  out-of-the-way  places  in  search  of  the  timber.  Logs  were  hauled 
on  wagons  long  distances  to  bring  them  out  of  remote  valleys  and  slopes 
where  no  timber  buyer  had  ever  gone  before.  The  walnut  buyers  made 
such  a  thorough  canvas  of  the  country  that  it  was  generally  supposed 
no  merchantable  tree  from  Kansas  to  Virginia  would  escape.  Many  a 
dooryard  giant  whose  wide  branches  had  shaded  the  family  roof  for 
generations,  fell  before  the  ax  of  the  contractor  who  was  willing  to  pay 
fifty  dollars  for  a  single  trunk,  though  it  might  be  twenty  miles  from  the 
nearest  railroad  or  navigable  stream.  In  spite  of  the  thoroughness  of 
the  search,  many  a  walnut  tree  was  spared.  Logs  have  been  going  to 
market  ever  since,  and  still  they  go.  They  will  continue  to  go  for  years, 
generations,  and  centuries;  for  walnut  trees  grow  with  rapidity. 


344  American  Forest  Trees 

The  trunk's  value  increases  with  age.  The  dark  colored  heartwood 
only  is  merchantable,  and  young  trees  have  little  heartwood.  The 
thick,  white  sap  constitutes  most  of  the  trunk  until  long  after  the  tree 
has  reached  small  sawlog  size.  Then  the  transformation  to  the  dark, 
valuable  heartwood  goes  on  with  fair  rapidity,  and  the  outer  shell  of 
sapwood  becomes  thinner  as  the  heart  increases,  and  in  time  a  trunk  is 
produced  which  is  fit  for  good  logs.  Value  comes  only  with  age.  The 
quarter  or  half  a  century  which  has  passed  since  the  country  was  so 
diligently  ransacked  for  merchantable  walnut,  has  been  sufficient  to 
develop  many  a  tree  which  was  then  rejected  by  the  purchasers.  Many 
a  tree  now  a  foot  in  diameter  had  scarcely  sprouted  then.  In  a  region  of 
700,000  square  miles,  walnut  trees  do  not  need  to  grow  very  close  to- 
gether to  produce  a  yearly  cut  of  30,000,000  or  40,000,000  feet. 

Black  walnut  is  valuable  for  its  color,  figiu-e,  and  the  fine  polish  it 
takes.  It  is  stronger  than  white  oak,  weight  for  weight,  but  it  is  eight 
pounds  lighter  per  cubic  foot.  The  figm-e  of  the  wood  is  due  wholly 
to  the  annual  rings,  as  its  medullary  rays  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  wood  is  very  porous,  and  the  pores  are  diffused  in  all  parts  of  the 
annual  rings,  except  in  the  thin,  pencil-like  mark  representing  the  out- 
ward boundary  of  the  summerwood.  When  sapwood  changes  to  heart- 
wood,  some  of  the  pores  disappear,  but  those  which  remain  are  abun- 
dantly sufficient  to  absorb  any  stains  or  fillers  which  the  wood  finisher 
may  wish  to  apply. 

The  annual  sawmill  cut  of  black  walnut  in  the  United  States  is 
from  35,000,000  to  40,000,000  feet,  but  much  goes  to  foreign  countries 
in  the  log,  and  a  considerable  quantity  goes  to  veneer  mills — about 
2,500,000  feet  a  year — and  a  quantity  finds  its  way  to  various  factories 
where  it  is  worked  up  without  any  statistical  record  being  made  of  it. 

Black  walnut  is  never  used  as  rough  lumber.  It  all  goes  to  factor- 
ies of  some  kind  to  be  converted  into  finished  commodities.  It  is  not 
possible  to  say  where  it  all  goes,  for  statistics  of  manufacture  are  frag- 
mentary in  this  country.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  demand  for 
walnut  by  factories  in  the  following  states  was  11,641,137  feet  in  1910: 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Missouri,  North  Carolina,  and  Texas.  The  wood  served  so  many  pur- 
poses that  a  list  of  them  would  be  monotonous.  In  Illinois  the  largest 
users  are  the  sewing  machine  and  the  musical  instrument  industries; 
in  Michigan  the  makers  of  automobiles  and  of  musical  instruments;  in 
Kentucky  the  manufacturers  of  coffins,  furniture,  and  musical  instru- 
ments; in  Massachusetts,  the  makers  of  furniture  and  of  firearms. 
These  uses  probably  afford  a  fairly  accurate  index  for  the  whole  country. 
During  the  Civil  war  the  largest  demand  for  walnut  came  from  gunstock 


American  Forest  Trees  345 

makers.     Doubtless  the  largest  use  from  1865  to  18S5  was  for  furniture. 

Much  of  the  best  black  walnut  is  exported.  The  logs  are  flattened 
on  the  four  sides  to  make  them  fit  better  in  ships  and  cars,  and  also  to  be 
rid  of  most  of  the  sapwood  which  is  valueless.  The  ends  are  painted 
with  red  lead  or  some  other  substance  to  lessen  liability  to  check. 
Sometimes  export  walnut  is  sawed  in  thick  planks. 

Large  quantities  of  old-time  walnut  furniture  have  been  resurrected 
in  recent  years  from  granary  and  garret  where  it  was  stored  long  ago  to 
have  it  out  of  the  way.  Some  of  the  old  beds,  lounges,  cupboards,  and 
chairs  were  of  heavy,  solid  walnut,  the  kind  not  made  now.  Some  of  it 
has  been  fiu-bished,  re-upholstered,  and  set  among  the  heirlooms;  other 
pieces  have  been  sold  to  furniture  makers  who  saw  the  solid  wood  in 
veneers,  and  use  it  again. 

The  search  for  old  walnut  did  not  stop  with  dragging  antique  furni- 
ture from  cubbyholes  and  attics,  but  two-inch  lumber  has  been  pulled 
from  floors  of  old  bams,  and  mills.  Many  old  fence  rails  were  made  into 
gun  stocks  during  the  Civil  war.  Later,  walnut  stumps  were  pulled  from 
field  and  wayside,  and  went  to  veneer  mills.  Some  finely  figured  wood 
comes  from  stumps  where  roots  and  trunk  join. 

An  occasional  walnut  tree  develops  a  large  burl  which  is  valued  for 
its  figured  wood.  Sometimes  the  burl  is  the  form  of  a  door  knob,  with  the 
tree  trunk  growing  through  the  center.  The  burl  sometimes  has  a 
diameter  three  or  four  times  as  great  as  the  trunk.  The  origin  of  such 
burls  is  supposed  to  be  a  mass  of  buds  which  fail  to  break  through  the 
bark. 

Black  walnut  has  a  compound  leaf  from  one  to  two  feet  long,  with 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-three  leaflets,  each  about  three  inches  long  and  an 
inch  or  two  wide.  The  nuts  ripen  in  the  fall,  and  are  valuable.  They 
are  borne  chiefly  by  trees  growing  in  open  ground;  forest  trees  do  not 
bear  until  old,  and  then  only  a  few  nuts.  The  walnuts  which  germinate 
are  usually  those  buried  by  squirrels,  and  forgotten. 

Within  the  past  twenty  or  thirty  years  plantations  have  been  made 
in  states  of  the  Middle  West.  Many  young  planted  trees  have  been  cut 
for  fence  posts,  with  disappointing  results.  It  was  known  that  old 
walnut  is  durable,  and  it  was  supposed  young  trunks  would  be,  when 
used  for  posts;  but  young  trees  are  nearly  all  sapwood  which  rots 
quickly. 

Forest  grown  walnut  trees  vary  in  size  from  a  diameter  of  two  feet 
and  a  height  of  fifty,  to  a  diameter  of  six  or  more  and  a  height  of  100  or 
120.  Trunks  which  grow  in  the  shade  are  tall,  clear,  and  symmetrical; 
those  in  the  open  are  shorter,  with  more  taper. 

Pale-leaf  Hickory  {Hicoria  villosa)  is  a  small  tree  but  large  enough  to  be 


346  American  Forest  Trees 

useful  wherever  it  exists  in  sufficient  quantity.  The  largest  specimens  attain  a  height 
of  fifty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eighteen  inches.  The  tree  bears  nuts  when  very  small, 
and  the  kernel  is  sweet.  The  bark  of  this  hickory  is  rough  but  not  shaggy.  The 
range  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida  and  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas.  It  is 
most  abundant  in  the  lower  Appalachian  ranges.  The  w^ood  possesses  the  common 
characteristics  of  the  hickories,  and  it  is  cut  with  them  wherever  it  is  found,  but  is 
seldom  or  never  reported  separately  in  lumber  operations. 

Small  Pignut  Hickory  (Hicoria  odoraia)  is  considered  a  species  by  some 
botanists  while  others  regard  it  as  a  variety.  It  is  called  small  pignut  in  Maryland, 
and  occasionally  little  shagbark.  This  last  name  refers  to  the  roughness  of  the  bark 
which  resembles  the  bark  of  elm.  The  range  of  the  tree  extends  from  Massachusetts 
to  Missouri  and  south  to  the  Ohio  and  the  Potomac  rivers.  The  wood  differs  little 
from  that  of  pignut  hickory,  and  the  uses  are  the  same.  No  distinction  is  made 
between  them  at  the  shop  and  factory.  This  tree  is  by  some  botanists  believed  to  be 
a  hybrid  between  shagbark  and  pignut.  It  is  sometimes  called  false  shagbark.  The 
nut  is  edible. 


BUTTERNUT 


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'Pi#M^P^^ 

^HB^ 

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Ki^\^           1 

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Jkt^                    'I 

^H 

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^^H 

i^li^^^M 

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rW^jiSl 

B LITER 

S'U  1 

BUTTERNUT 

(Juglans  Cinerea) 

THIS  tree  is  known  as  butternut  or  as  white  walnut  in  all  parts  of  its 
range.  Butternut  is  in  reference  to  the  oily  kernel  of  the  nuts,  and 
white  walnut  is  the  name  given  by  those  who  would  distinguish  the  tree 
from  black  walnut.  Persons  acquainted  with  one  of  the  species  in  its 
native  woods  are  usually  sure  to  be  acquainted  with  the  other,  for  their 
ranges  are  practically  co-extensive,  except  that  black  walnut  extends 
farther  southwest,  butternut  farther  northeast.  Butternut  grows  from 
New  Brunswick  to  South  Dakota,  from  Delaware  to  Arkansas,  and  along 
the  Appalachian  highlands  to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

Butternut  resembles  black  walnut  in  a  good  many  ways  and  differs 
from  it  in  several.  They  are  very  closely  related  botanically — as  closely 
as  are  brothers  in  the  same  household.  Black  walnut  is  larger,  stronger, 
better  known,  and  has  always  dominated  and  eclipsed  the  other  in  use- 
fulness and  public  esteem;  yet  butternut  is  a  tree  both  useful  and 
interesting.  No  person  acquainted  with  both  would  ever  mistake  one 
for  the  other,  winter  or  summer.  Botanists  tell  how  to  distinguish 
butternut  from  black  walnut  by  noting  minor  differences.  The  person 
who  is  not  a  botanist  needs  no  such  help.  He  knows  them  at  sight,  and 
there  is  no  possibility  of  mistaking  them. 

Butternut  in  the  forest  may  attain  a  height  of  eighty  or  100  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  three,  but  few  persons  ever  see  a  specimen  of  that  size, 
and  never  in  open  ground.  In  shade,  the  butternut  does  its  best  to  get 
its  crown  up  to  light  and  sunshine,  but  it  is  weak.  It  often  gives  up  the 
struggle  and  remains  in  the  shade  of  trees  which  overtop  it.  In  that 
situation  its  crown  is  small,  thin,  and  appears  to  rest  lightly  in  the  form 
of  a  small  bunch  of  yellowish-green  leaves  on  the  top  of  a  tall,  spindling 
bole,  which  is  seldom  straight,  but  is  made  up  of  slight,  undulating 
curves.  The  pale,  yellowish  tinge  of  the  bark  suggests  a  plant  deprived 
of  sunshine. 

When  butternut  grows  in  open  ground  where  light  falls  upon  its 
crown  and  on  all  sides,  it  assumes  a  different  form  and  presents  another 
figure.  The  trunk  is  nearly  as  short  as  that  of  an  apple  tree.  It  divides 
in  large  branches  and  limbs,  and  these  spread  wide;  leaves  are  healthy, 
yet  the  crown  of  a  butternut  always  looks  thin  compared  with  that  of  the 
black  walnut.  Tests  show  that  butternut  wood,  when  thoroughly  dry, 
is  somewhat  stiffer  than  black  walnut;  but  it  is  light  and  weak.  It  is 
about  two-thirds  as  heavy  and  two-thirds  as  strong  as  black  walnut. 
The  growing  tree  betrays  the  wood's  weakness.     Large  limbs  snap  in 


350  Amkrican  Forest  Trees 

storms.  Trees  become  lopsided,  and  a  symmetrical,  well-proportioned 
butternut  crown  is  an  exception.  The  broken  branches  leave  openings 
for  the  entrance  of  decay,  and  butternuts  nearly  always  die  of  disease 
rather  than  of  old  age. 

Leaves  are  compound,  and  from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  in  length. 
Few  trees  of  this  country  have  larger  leaves.  There  are  from  eleven  to 
seventeen  leaflets.  They  are  hairy  and  sticky.  Hands  that  handle 
them  are  covered  with  mucilage-like  substance.  The  nuts,  which  grow 
in  clusters  of  three  or  five,  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  leaves  and 
covered  with  the  same  sticky  fuzz.  The  nuts  are  two  inches  or  more  in 
length,  and  are  borne  abundantly  when  trees  stand  in  open  ground. 
Size  rather  than  age  appears  to  determine  the  period  when  trees  com- 
mence to  bear.  Those  of  extra  vigor  produce  when  ten  or  twelve  years 
old.  The  nuts  are  salable  in  the  market.  They  fall  with  the  leaves, 
immediately  after  the  first  sharp  frost,  and  all  come  down  together.  A 
single  day  frequently  sufiices  to  strip  the  last  leaf  from  a  tree,  though 
some  of  the  nuts  may  hang  a  little  longer.  The  kernels  are  very  rich, 
when  the  nuts  are  dry,  and  are  apt  to  cloy  the  appetite;  but  they  are 
improved  by  freezing  where  they  lie  on  the  ground  among  the  leaves; 
but  they  must  be  used  quickly  after  they  thaw,  or  they  will  spoil.  Nuts 
nearly  full-grown  but  not  yet  hard  are  made  into  pickles,  but  the  fuzz 
must  first  be  washed  off  with  hot  water. 

Butternut  bark  has  played  a  rather  important  role  in  the  country's 
affairs.  Doctors  in  the  Revolutionary  war  made  much  of  their  medicine 
of  the  roots  and  bark  of  this  tree.  Drugs  were  imattainable,  and  phy- 
sicians were  forced  to  betake  themselves  to  the  woods  for  substitutes, 
and  their  pharmacopoeias  were  enriched  by  the  butternut  tree.  House- 
wives dyed  cloth  a  brown  color  with  this  bark  long  before  aniline  dyes 
found  their  way  into  this  country.  Whole  companies  of  Confederate 
soldiers  from  the  mountain  regions  in  the  Civil  war  wore  clothes  dyed  in 
decoctions  of  butternut  bark,  and  popularly  known  as  "butternut 
jeans." 

The  annual  output  of  butternut  lumber  is  placed  at  a  little  more 
than  1,000,000  feet  a  year.  It  is  widely  used,  but  in  small  amounts. 
In  Maryland  it  is  made  into  ceiling  and  flooring;  in  North  Carolina  into 
cabinet  work,  fixtures  for  stores  and  offices,  and  into  furniture;  in  Mich- 
igan its  reported  uses  are  boat  finish,  interior  finish  for  houses,  molding, 
and  screen  frames.  In  Illinois  it  is  used  for  all  the  purposes  listed 
above  and  also  for  church  altars  and  car  finish.  These  uses  are  doubtless 
typical,  and  hold  good  in  all  parts  of  the  country  where  any  use  is  made 
of  butternut. 

The  wood  has  figure  similar  to  that  of  black  walnut,  but  the  color 


American  Forest  Trees  351 

is  lighter.  It  is  nearer  brown  than  black.  The  pores  are  diffused  through 
the  annual  ring,  but  are  more  numerous  and  of  larger  size  in  the  inner 
than  in  the  outer  part.  The  springwood  blends  gradually  with  the  wood 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  without  sharp  distinction,  but  the  ring 
terminates  in  a  black  line  which  is  the  chief  element  of  contrast  in  the 
wood's  figure. 

The  future  value  of  butternut  will  be  less  in  the  lumber  than  in  the 
nuts.  The  tendency  in  that  direction  is  now  apparent.  When  land  is 
cleared,  the  trees  which  would  formerly  have  gone  to  the  sawmill,  are 
now  left  to  bear  nuts.  The  averaged  price  paid  by  factories  in  North 
Carolina  for  butternut  is  $40  a  thousand  feet.  It  is  cheaper  in  the  Lake 
States. 

Mexican  Walnut  (Juglans  rupestris)  will  never  amount  to  much  as  a  timber 
tree,  though  it  is  by  no  means  useless.  It  is  known  by  several  names,  among  them 
being  western  walnut,  dwarf  walnut,  little  walnut,  and  California  walnut.  The  last 
name  is  applied  in  Arizona  through  a  misunderstanding  of  the  tree's  identity.  It  is 
there  confused  with  the  California  walnut  which  is  a  different  species.  The  Mexican 
walnut's  range  extends  from  central  Texas,  through  Ne%v  Mexico  to  Arizona,  and 
southward  into  Mexico.  It  prefers  the  limestone  banks  of  streams  in  Texas  where  it 
is  usually  shrubby,  seldom  attaining  a  height  above  thirty  feet.  It  reaches  its  largest 
size  in  canyons  among  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  where  it  reaches  a 
height  of  sixty  feet.  Trunks  are  sometimes  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  weighs 
40.85  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  dark  in  color,  but  the  tone  is  not  as  regular  as  that  of 
black  walnut;  neither  is  it  as  strong  and  stiff.  It  polishes  well,  and  is  said  to  be  dur- 
able in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  finds  its  way  in  small  amounts  to  local  mills,  shops, 
and  factories  where  it  is  made  into  various  commodities.  It  is  particularly  liked  for 
the  lathe,  and  is  suited  better  for  turnery  than  for  any  other  purpose.  It  is  made 
into  gavels,  cups,  spindles,  parts  of  grills;  and  it  is  also  worked  into  picture  frames, 
handles,  and  small  pieces  of  furniture.  It  does  not  appear  that  lumber  sawed  from 
this  walnut  ever  gets  into  the  general  market,  but  the  whole  output,  which  is  small,  is 
consumed  locally.  Trees  do  not  occur  in  pure  stands  and  the  whole  supply  consists  of 
isolated  trees  or  small  groups,  with  few  trunks  large  enough  for  sawlogs.  The  nuts 
are  dwarfs.  All  are  not  the  same  size,  but  none  are  as  large  as  a  hickory  nut.  Many 
that  grow  on  the  diminutive  trees  along  the  water  courses  in  western  Texas  are  not  as 
large,  husks  and  all,  as  a  nutmeg,  and  the  nut  itself  is  about  half  the  size  of  a  nutmeg, 
and  not  dissimilar  in  appearance.  The  kernels  of  such  a  nut  are  too  small  to  have  any 
commercial  value,  but  they  are  rare  morsels  for  the  native  Mexicans  and  Indians  who 
pick  them  by  pocketfuls.  Trees  in  the  stony  canyon  of  Devil's  river,  in  Texas,  are 
in  full  bearing  when  so  small  that  a  man  can  stand  on  the  ground  and  pick  walnuts 
from  their  highest  branches.  The  Mexican  walnut  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  It  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Massa- 
chusetts. 

California  WalniH'  (Juglans  californica)  is  a  small  tree  confined  to  California, 
and  pretty  close  to  the  coast,  though  it  grows  in  Eldorado  county.  It  is  most 
abundant  within  twenty  or  thirty  miles  of  tidewater.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
state  it  ascends  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet.  It  prefers  the  banks  of  streams  and  the 
bottoms  of  canyons  where  the  soil  is  moist,  but  it  will  grow  in  dry  situations.  Trees 
occur  singly  or  in  small  groups.     Their  average  size  is  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  and 


352  American  Forest  Trees 

eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter;  but  trees  occasionally  are  sixty  feet  high  and  eighteen 
inches  through.  The  leaves  are  small,  measuring  from  six  to  nine  inches  in  length, 
with  from  nine  to  seventeen  leaflets.  Nuts  are  about  half  the  size  of  eastern  black 
walnuts.  The  kernel  is  edible.  The  wood  is  heavier  than  black  walnut,  and  some- 
what lighter  in  color.  Otherwise  the  two  woods  are  much  alike,  except  in  strength 
and  stiffness.  In  these  the  California  wood  is  inferior.  It  has  not  been  reported  for 
any  use,  but  it  is  suitable  for  a  number  of  purposes,  provided  logs  of  sufficient  size 
could  be  had.  The  trunk,  in  addition  to  being  small,  is  usually  short.  The  tree  is 
intolerant  of  shade,  and  is  not  often  found  in  forests.  It  grows  rapidly  and  will 
attain  a  diameter  of  fifteen  inches  in  twenty  years  or  less;  but  it  apparently  does  not 
live  long.  Its  principal  usefulness  in  California  is  as  a  shade  tree,  and  as  a  stock  in 
nurseries  on  which  to  graft  English  walnut. 


SHAGBARK  HICKORY 


SHAGBARK  HICKORY 

(Hicoria  Ovata) 

TWELVE  species  of  hickory  grow  in  the  United  States,  all  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  None  grow  anywhere  else  in  the  world, 
as  far  as  known.  They  were  widely  dispersed  over  the  northern  hemis- 
phere in  prehistoric  times.  The  records  of  geology,  written  by  leaf  prints 
in  the  rocks,  tell  of  forests  of  hickory  in  Europe,  and  even  in  Greenland, 
probably  a  hundred  thousand  or  more  years  ago,  and  certainly  not  in 
times  that  can  be  called  recent.  No  records  there  later  than  the  ice 
age  have  been  found.  This  leads  to  the  presumption  that  the  sheet  of 
ice  which  pushed  down  from  the  North  and  covered  the  larger  portions 
of  Em-ope  and  North  America,  overwhelmed  the  hickory  forests,  and  all 
others,  as  far  as  the  southern  limit  of  the  ice's  advance. 

In  Europe  the  hickory  was  utterly  destroyed,  and  it  never  returned 
after  the  close  of  the  reign  of  ice ;  but  America  was  more  fortunate.  The 
ice  sheet  pushed  little  farther  in  its  southward  course  than  the  Ohio  and 
Missouri  rivers,  and  forests  south  of  there  held  their  ground,  and  they 
slowly  worked  their  way  back  north  as  the  ice  withdrew.  Hickory 
recovered  part  but  not  all  of  its  lost  ground  in  America,  for  it  is  now 
found  no  farther  north  than  southern  Canada,  which  is  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  from  its  old  range  in  Greenland. 

The  early  settlers  in  New  England  and  in  the  South  at  once  came 
into  contact  with  hickory.  It  was  one  of  the  first  woods  named  in  this 
country,  and  the  name  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  is  spelled  in  no  fewer  than 
seventeen  ways  in  early  literature  relating  to  the  settlements.  It  is 
probable  that  John  Smith,  a  prominent  man  in  early  Virginia  and  New 
England,  was  the  first  man  who  ever  wrote  the  name.  He  spelled  it  as 
the  Indians  pronounced  it,  "powcohiscora,"  and  it  has  been  trimmed 
down  to  our  word  hickory.  The  Indian  word  was  the  name  of  a  salad  or 
soup  made  of  pounded  hickory  nuts  and  water,  and  was  only  indirectly 
applied  to  the  tree  itself. 

The  first  settlers  along  the  Atlantic  coast  nearly  always  called  this 
tree  a  walnut,  and  the  name  white  walnut  was  common.  They  were 
unacquainted  with  any  similar  nut-bearing  tree  in  Europe,  except  the 
walnut,  and  most  people  preferred  applying  a  name  with  which  they  were 
already  familiar.  Hickories  and  walnuts  belong  to  the  same  family,  and 
have  many  points  in  common. 

Although  there  are  twelve  hickories  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
many  respects  they  are  similar,  all  are  not  of  equal  value.  Some  are 
very  scarce,  and  the  wood  of  others  is  not  up  to  standard.     From  a 


356  American  Forest  Trees 

commercial  standpoint,  four  surpass  the  others.  These  are  shagbark 
{Hicoria  ovata),  shellbark  (Hicoria  laciniosa),  pignut  {Hicoria  glabra), 
and  mockernut  {Hicoria  alba).  The  wood  of  some  of  the  others  is  as 
good,  but  is  scarce;  and  still  others,  particularly  the  pecans,  are  abun- 
dant enough,  but  the  wood  is  inferior.  It  is  impossible  in  business  to 
separate  the  hickories.  Lumbermen  do  not  do  it ;  manufacturers  cannot 
do  it.  In  some  regions  one  is  more  abundant  than  the  others,  and  conse- 
quently is  used  in  larger  quantities,  but  in  some  other  region  a  different 
species  may  predominate  in  the  forest  and  in  the  factory.  It  cannot  be 
truthfully  asserted  that  one  hickory  is  always  as  good  as  another,  or 
even  that  a  certain  species  in  one  region  is  as  good  as  the  same  species 
in  another  region.  All  parts  of  the  same  tree  do  not  produce  wood  of 
equal  value. 

Along  certain  general  lines,  hickories  have  many  properties  in 
common.  The  wood  is  ring-porous,  that  is,  the  inner  edge  of  the  yearly 
growth  ring  has  a  row  of  large  pores.  Others  are  scattered  toward  the 
outer  part  of  the  ring,  generally  decreasing  in  number  and  size  outward. 
There  is  no  distinct  division  between  spring  and  summerwood.  The 
medullary  rays  are  thin  and  obscure.  The  unaided  eye  seldom  notices 
them.  The  sapwood  is  white  in  all  species  of  hickory,  and  is  usually 
very  thick.  The  heartwood  is  reddish.  Common  opinion  has  long  held 
that  sapwood  is  tougher  and  more  elastic  than  heartwood,  and  therefore 
to  be  preferred  for  most  purposes.  Tests  made  a  few  years  ago  by  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  ran  counter  to  the  long-established 
opinion  of  users,  by  showing  that  in  most  respects  the  redwood  of  the 
heart  was  as  good  as  the  white  sapwood.  However,  where  resiliency 
is  the  chief  requisite,  as  in  slender  handles,  many  manufacturers  still 
prefer  sapwood. 

Hickory  is  very  strong,  probably  the  strongest  wood  in  common 
use  in  this  country.  The  statement  that  one  wood  is  stronger  than  all 
others  is  hardly  justified  because  averages  of  strength  should  be  taken, 
and  not  isolated  instances.  Satisfactory  averages  have  not  yet  been 
worked  out  for  a  large  number  of  our  woods ;  but,  as  far  as  existing  figures 
may  be  accepted,  hickory  is  at  the  head  of  the  list  for  strength, toughness, 
and  resiliency.  Choice  samples  of  certain  woods  may  exceed  the 
average  of  hickory  in  some  of  these  particulars.  Sugar  maple,  horn- 
beam, and  locust  occasionally  show  greater  strength  than  hickorj^,  but 
they  lack  in  toughness  and  resiliency — the  very  properties  which  give 
hickory  its  chief  value  for  many  purposes. 

Considerable  misunderstanding  exists  as  to  second  growth  hickor)^ 
Some  suppose  it  consists  of  trees  of  commercial  size  developed  from 
sprouts  where  old  trees  have  been  cut.     That  is  not  generally  correct. 


American  Forest  Trees  357 

When  small  hickory  trees  are  cut,  the  stumps  often  sprout,  but  hoop 
poles  are  about  the  only  commodity  made  from  that  kind  of  hickory. 
If  sprouts  are  left  to  grow  large,  the  trees  produced  are  generally  de- 
fective. Good  hickory  grows  from  the  nut.  The  term  "second  growth" 
means  little,  unless  it  is  explained  in  each  instance  just  what  conditions 
are  included.  In  one  sense,  all  young,  vigorous  trees  are  second  growth, 
and  that  is  often  the  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  Some  would 
restrict  it  to  trees  which  have  come  up  in  old  fields  or  partial  clearings, 
where  they  have  plenty  of  light,  and  have  grown  rapidly.  Their  trunks 
are  short,  the  wood  is  tough,  and  there  is  little  red  heart  wood.  The 
larger  a  pine,  oak,  or  poplar,  provided  it  is  sound,  the  better  the  wood; 
but  not  so  with  hickory.  Great  age  and  large  size  add  no  desirable 
qualities  to  this  wood. 

Shagbark  is  largest  of  the  true  hickories.  The  pecans  are  not 
usually  regarded  as  true  hickories  from  the  wood-user's  viewpoint. 
Some  shagbarks  are  120  feet  high  and  four  feet  in  diameter,  but  the 
average  size  is  about  seventy-five  tall,  two  in  diameter.  There  is  con- 
fusion of  names  among  all  the  hickories,  and  shagbark  is  misnamed  and 
over-named  as  often  as  any  of  the  others.  Many  persons  do  not  know 
shagbark  and  shellbark  apart,  though  the  ranges  of  the  two  species  lie 
only  partly  in  the  same  territory-.  Shagbark  is  known  as  shellbark 
hickory,  shagbark  hickory,  shellbark,  upland  hickory,  hickory,  scaly 
bark  hickor>',  white  walnut,  walnut,  white  hickor>-,  and  red  heart 
hickory.  Most  of  the  names  refer  to  the  bark,  which  separates  into  thin 
strips,  often  a  foot  or  more  long,  and  six  inches  or  more  wide;  and  this 
remains  more  or  less  closely  attached  to  the  trunk  by  the  middle,  giving 
the  shaggy  appearance  to  which  the  tree  owes  its  common  name. 

The  leaf-buds  are  large  and  ovate,  with  yellowish-green  and  brown 
scales.  The  leaves  are  compound  and  alternate ;  they  have  rough  stalks 
containing  five  or  seven  leaflets;  they  are  sessile,  tapering  to  a  point  and 
having  a  rounded  base.  The  lower  pair  of  leaflets  is  markedly  different 
from  the  rest  in  shape ;  sharply  serrate  and  thin ;  dark  green  and  glabrous 
above;  lighter  below.  The  flowers  do  not  appear  until  the  leaves  have 
fully  matured.  They  grow  in  catkins;  the  staminate  ones  are  light 
green,  slender,  and  grow  in  groups  of  three  on  long  peduncles;  the 
pistillate  ones  grow  in  spikes  of  from  two  to  five  flowers.  The  fruit 
grows  within  a  dense,  green  husk,  shiny  and  smooth  on  the  outside, 
opening  in  four  parts.  The  nut  is  nearly  white,  four-angled,  and  flat- 
tened at  the  sides.     The  kernel  is  sweet  and  of  a  strong  flavor. 

This  tree's  range  is  not  much  short  of  1,000,000  square  miles,  but  it 
is  not  equally  abundant  in  all  parts.  It  grows  from  southern  Maine  to 
western  Florida;  is  found  in  Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  and  southward 


358 


American  Forest  Trees 


beyond  the  Mississippi.  It  is  most  common  and  of  largest  size  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains  and  in  the  basin 
of  the  lower  Ohio  river.  Its  favorite  habitat  is  on  low  hills,  or  near 
streams  and  swamps,  in  rich  and  moderately  well  drained  soil. 

The  hickories  have  long  tap  roots,  and  they  do  best  in  soils  which 
the  tap  roots  can  penetrate,  going  down  like  a  radish.  The  root  system 
makes  most  hickories  difficult  trees  to  transplant.  Early  in  life  they  do 
a  large  part  of  their  growing  under  ground,  and  when  that  growth  is 
interrupted,  as  it  must  be  in  transplanting,  the  young  tree  seldom  re- 
covers. Those  who  would  grow  hickories  for  timber,  nuts,  or  as  orna- 
ments, should  plant  the  seed  where  the  tree  is  expected  to  remain.  Most 
of  the  planting  of  hickory  in  the  forest  is  done  by  squirrels  which  bury 
nuts,  with  the  apparent  expectation  of  digging  them  up  later.  Occasion- 
ally one  is  missed,  and  a  young  tree  starts. 

The  uses  of  this  wood  are  typical  of  all  the  other  hickories.  Han- 
dles and  light  vehicles  consume  most  of  it.  The  markets  are  in  all  parts 
of  this  country,  and  in  manufacturing  centers  in  many  foreign  lands. 


BITTERNUT  HICKORY 


tR 

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BITTERNUT  HICKORY 

(Hicoria  Minima) 

THE  tannin  in  the  thin  shelled  nuts  which  grow  abundantly  on  this 
tree  gives  the  name  bittemut.  The  name  is  truly  descriptive. 
Gall  itself  scarcely  exceeds  the  intense  bitterness  of  the  kernel,  when 
crushed  between  the  teeth.  The  sense  of  taste  does  not  immediately 
detect  the  bitterness  in  its  full  intensity.  A  little  time  seems  to  be 
necessary  to  dissolve  the  astringent  principal  and  distribute  it  to  the 
nerves  of  taste.  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  bitterness 
remains  a  long  time,  seeming  to  persist  after  the  last  vestige  of  the  cause 
has  been  removed.  In  that  respect  it  may  be  likened  to  the  resin  of  the 
incense  cedar  of  California  which  is  among  tastes  what  musk  is  among 
odors,  nearly  everlasting.  The  bitterness  of  this  hickory  nut  has  much 
to  do  with  the  perpetuation  of  the  species.  No  wild  or  tame  animal  will 
eat  the  fruit  unless  forced  by  famine.  Consequently,  the  nuts  are  left 
to  grow,  provided  they  can  get  themselves  planted.  That  is  not  always 
easy,  for  small  quadrupeds  which  bury  edible  nuts  for  food,  and  then 
occasionally  forget  them,  show  no  interest  whatever  in  the  unpalatable 
bittemut.  It  is  left  where  it  falls,  unless  running  water,  or  some  other 
method  of  locomotion,  transports  it  to  another  locality.  This  happens 
with  sufficient  frequency  to  plant  the  nuts  as  widely  as  those  of  any  other 
hickory.    It  is  believed  that  this  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  hickories. 

The  tree  bears  names  other  than  bittemut.  It  is  called  swamp 
hickory,  though  that  name  is  more  applicable  to  a  different  species,  the 
water  hickory.  Pig  hickory  or  pignut  are  names  used  in  several  states, 
but  without  good  reason.  Hogs  may  sometimes  eat  the  nuts,  but  never 
when  anything  better  can  be  found.  Besides,  pignut  is  the  accepted 
name  of  another  species  {Hicoria  glabra).  In  Louisiana  they  call  it  the 
bitter  pecan  tree.  Bitter  hickory  is  a  common  name  in  many  localities. 
In  New  Hampshire  it  is  known  as  pig  walnut,  in  Vermont  as  bitter 
walnut,  and  in  Texas  as  white  hickory.  The  names  are  so  many,  and  so 
often  apply  as  well  to  other  hickories  as  to  this,  that  the  name  alone  is 
seldom  a  safe  guide  to  identification.  It  has  two  or  three  characters 
which  will  help  to  pick  it  out  from  among  others.  Its  leaves  and  bark 
bear  considerable  resemblance  to  ash.  The  leaves  are  the  smallest 
among  the  hickories,  and  the  bark  is  never  shaggy.  The  small  branches 
always  carry  yellow  buds,  no  matter  what  the  season  of  the  year.  The 
compound  leaves  are  from  six  to  ten  inches  long,  and  consist  of  from  five 
to  nine  leaflets,  always  an  odd  number. 

Bittemut  hickory's  range  covers  pretty  generally  the  eastern  part 

361 


362  American  Forest  Trees 

of  the  United  States.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  commonest  hickories  of 
New  England,  and  is  likewise  the  common  hickory  of  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
and  Iowa.  It  grows  from  Maine  through  southern  Canada  to  Minnesota, 
follows  down  the  western  side  of  the  Mississippi  valley  to  Texas,  and 
extends  into  western  Florida. 

Hickory  is  often  lumbered  in  ways  not  common  with  other  hard- 
woods. It  is  not  generally  found  in  ordinary  lumber  yards,  and  is  not 
cut  into  lumber  as  most  other  woods  are.  It  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  The 
person  who  would  consult  statistics  of  lumber  cut  in  the  United  States  to 
ascertain  the  quantity  of  hickory  going  to  market,  would  utterly  fail  to 
obtain  the  desired  information.  The  statistics  of  lumber  cut  in  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1910  listed  the  total  for  hickory  at  272,252,000 
feet,  distributed  among  33  states,  and  cut  by  6,349  mills.  Reports  by 
users  of  this  wood  in  a  number  of  states  show  that  probably  twice  as 
much  goes  to  factories  to  be  manufactured  into  finished  commodities, 
as  all  the  sawmills  cut.  This  means  that  much  hickory  goes  to  factories 
without  having  passed  through  sawmills  to  be  first  converted  into  lumber. 
It  goes  as  bolts  and  billets,  and  as  logs  of  various  lengths.  Some  saw- 
mills in  the  hickory  region  cut  dimension  stock  and  sell  it  to  factories  to 
be  further  worked  up;  but  that  is  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the 
hickory  that  finds  its  way  to  factories  of  various  kinds.  Many  sawmills 
refuse  to  cut  hickory,  claiming  that  it  does  not  pay  them  to  specialize  on 
a  scarce  wood.  Scattered  trees  occur  among  other  timber,  but  these  are 
left  when  the  other  logging  is  done.  Special  operators  go  after  the  hick- 
ory, and  distribute  it  among  various  industries  which  are  in  the  market 
for  it.  That  method  often  results  in  much  waste,  because  the  man  who 
is  specializing  in  one  commodity,  such  as  wagon  poles,  ax  handles, 
sucker-rods,  wheel  stock,  or  the  like,  is  apt  to  cut  out  only  what  meets  his 
requirements,  and  abandon  the  rest.  Some  of  the  hickory  camps  where 
such  stock  is  roughed  out  are  spectacles  of  carelessness  and  waste,  with 
heaps  of  rejected  hickory  which,  though  not  meeting  requirements  for 
the  special  articles  in  view,  are  valuable  for  many  other  things.  Few 
woods  contribute  to  the  trash  heap  more  in  proportion  to  the  total  cut 
than  hickory ;  but  the  waste  nearly  all  occurs  before  the  factories  which 
finally  work  up  the  products  are  reached.  These  factories  are  often 
hundreds  of  miles  from  the  forests  where  the  hickory  grows. 

Hickory  was  not  a  useful  farm  timber  in  early  times,  as  oak  and 
chestnut  were.  It  decayed  quickly  when  exposed  to  weather,  and  was 
not  suitable  for  fence  rails,  posts,  house  logs,  or  general  lumber.  It  was 
sometimes  used  for  bam  floors,  but  when  seasoned  it  was  so  hard  to  nail 
that  it  was  not  well  liked.  The  pioneers  were  not  able  to  use  this  wood 
to  advantage,  because  it  is  a  manufacturer's  material,  not  a  farmer's  or 


American  Forest  Trees  363 

a  villager's  standby.  It  can  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the  pioneers,  how- 
ever, that  they  knew  its  value  for  certain  purposes,  and  employed  as 
much  of  it  as  they  needed. 

Fuel  was  the  most  important  place  for  hickory  on  the  farm.  All 
things  considered,  it  is  probably  the  best  firewood  of  the  American 
forest.  The  yawning  fireplaces  called  for  cords  of  wood  every  month  of 
winter  in  the  northern  states.  Enough  to  make  a  modern  buggy  would 
go  up  the  chimney  in  a  rich  red  blaze  in  an  hour,  and  no  one  thought 
that  it  was  waste;  and  it  was  not  waste  then,  because  farms  had  to  be 
cleared,  and  firewood  was  the  best  use  possible  for  the  hickory  at  that 
time.  Every  cord  burned  in  the  chimney  was  that  much  less  to  be 
rolled  into  logheaps  and  consumed  in  the  clearing  for  the  new  cornfield. 

Hickory  has  always  been  considered  the  best  material  for  smoking 
meat.  More  than  .30,000  cords  a  year  are  now  used  that  way.  It  was  so 
used  in  early  times,  when  every  farmer  smoked  and  packed  his  own  meat. 
Hickory  smoke  was  supposed  to  give  bacon  a  flavor  equalled  by  no  other 
wood;  and  in  addition  to  that  it  was  believed  to  keep  the  skippers  out. 

The  nuts  were  made  into  oil  which  was  thought  to  be  efficacious  as  a 
liniment  employed  as  a  remedy  against  rheumatism  to  which  pioneers 
were  susceptible  because  their  moccasins  were  porous  and  their  feet 
were  often  wet.  The  oil  was  used  also  for  illuminating  purposes.  It 
fed  the  flame  of  a  crude  lamp. 

No  other  wood  equalled  hickory  for  "split  brooms,"  the  kind  that 
swept  the  cabins  before  broom  com  was  known  or  carpet  sweepers  and 
vacuum  cleaners  were  invented.  The  toughness,  smoothness,  and 
strength  of  hickory  made  it  the  best  oxbow  wood,  and  the  same  property 
fitted  it  for  barrel  hoops.  Thousands  of  fish  casks  in  New  England  and 
tobacco  hogshead  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  were  hooped  with  hickory 
before  George  Washington  was  bom.  The  wood's  value  for  ax  handles 
was  learned  early.  The  Indians  used  it  for  the  long,  slender  handles  of 
their  stone  hammers  with  which  they  barked  trees  in  their  clearings,  and 
broke  the  skulls  of  enemies  in  war. 

Bittemut  hickory  has  about  ninety-two  per  cent  of  the  strength 
of  shagbark,  and  seventy-three  per  cent  of  its  stiffness.  It  yields  con- 
siderably more  ash  when  burned,  and  is  rated  a  little  lower  in  fuel  value. 

Mocker  Nut  Hickory  (Hicoria  alba)  has  many  names.  It  is  called  mocker 
nut  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Kansas;  white  heart 
hickory,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  North  Carolina,  Texas, 
Illinois,  Ontario,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  and  Nebraska;  black  hickory,  Texas, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Missouri;  big  bud  and  red  hickory,  Florida;hardback  hickory, 
Illinois ;  white  hickory,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina ;  big  hickory  nut.  West  Virginia ; 
hognut,  Delaware.     The  name  mocker  nut  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  thick  shell  and 


364  American  Forest  Trees 

disappointingly  small  kernel  within.  The  range  is  not  as  extensive  as  some  of  the 
other  hickories.  Beginning  in  southern  Ontario,  it  extends  westward  and  southward 
to  eastern  Kansas  and  the  eastern  half  of  Texas.  The  region  of  its  most  abundant 
growth  is  in  the  basin  of  the  lower  Ohio  and  in  Arkansas,  the  best  specimens  appear- 
ing in  fertile  uplands.  This  is  said  to  be  the  only  hickory  that  invades  the  southern 
maritime  pinebelt,  growing  on  the  low  country  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  in 
abundance.  The  leaves  are  fragrant  with  a  powerful,  resinous  odor;  they  have  five 
or  seven  leaflets  with  hairy  petioles  or  stems.  The  bark  resembles  that  of  bitternut, 
and  is  not  scaly  like  that  of  shagbark.  The  wood  weighs  51.21  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  It  is  hard,  strong,  tough,  flexible.  It  has  about  ninety-four  per  cent  of  the 
strength  of  shagbark,  and  eighty  per  cent  of  its  stiffness.  Certain  selected  specimens 
of  this  species  are  probably  as  strong  as  any  hickory;  but,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
woods,  there  is  great  difference  between  specimens,  and  general  averages  only  are 
to  be  relied  upon.  G.  W.  Letterman,  who  collected  woods  for  Sargents'  tests,  pro- 
cured a  sample  of  this  hickory  near  Allenton,  Missouri,  which  showed  strength  suffi- 
cient to  sustain  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  its  measure  of  stiffness  was  the 
enormous  figure  of  2,208,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  uses  of  mocker  nut  hickory  do  not  differ  from  those  of  other  hickories. 
The  tree  is  ferquently  nearly  all  sapwood,  to  which  the  name  white  hickory  is  due. 
Some  persons  suppose  that  the  heartwood  is  white,  but  that  misconception  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  some  pretty  large  trees  have  no  heartwood,  but  are  sap  clear  through. 

The  term  "black  hickory"  is  sometimes  applied  to  three  species  with  dark- 
colored  bark  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  l)ark  of  ash.  They  are  bitternut 
(Hicoria  mimma),  pignut  {Hicoria  glabra),  and  mocker  nut  (Hicoria  alba).  When  the 
word  black  is  thus  used,  it  refers  to  the  bark  and  the  general  outward  appearance  of 
the  tree,  and  not  to  the  wood,  which  is  as  white  as  that  of  any  other  hickory. 


PIGNUT  HICKORY 


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^Ma^^>^t-te. 


-IT  Hickory 


PIGNUT  HICKORY 

{Hicoria  Glabra) 

THE  name  of  this  tree  is  unfortunate,  although  so  far  as  the  nuts  are 
concerned,  no  injustice  is  done.  It  is  one  of  the  best  hickories  in 
the  quality  of  its  wood,  and  also  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  is  likewise 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  its  range,  which  extends  from  Maine  to 
Kansas,  Texas,  Florida,  and  throughout  most  of  the  territory  enclosed 
by  the  boundary  lines  thus  delimited. 

The  name  pignut  is  common  in  New  England,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina;  South 
Carolina,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas, 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
and  Minnesota;  bittemut  in  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin; 
black  hickory  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa, 
and  Indiana;  broom  hickory  in  Missouri;  brown  hickory  in  Miss- 
issippi, Delaware,  Texas,  Tennessee,  Minnesota;  hardshell  in  West 
Virginia;  red  hickory  in  Delaware;  switch  bud  hickory  in  Alabama; 
and  white  hickory  in  New  Hampshire  and  Iowa. 

The  nuts  are  generally  bitter,  but  some  trees  bear  fruit  which  is 
not  very  offensive  to  the  taste.  The  avidity  with  which  swine  feed  upon 
it  gives  the  common  name.  This  tree  is  doubtless  confused  many  times 
with  bittemut,  though  their  differences  are  enough  to  distinguish  them 
readily  if  they  grow  side  by  side.  As  far  as  the  woods  of  the  two  species 
are  concerned,  there  is  little  occasion  to  keep  them  separate.  The 
pignut  is  a  forked  tree  more  frequently  than  any  other  species  of  hickory; 
and  the  nuts  vary  in  shape  and  size  more  than  those  of  any  other.  The 
tree  is  more  remarkable  for  its  variations  than  for  its  regularity.  In  one 
thing,  however,  it  is  pretty  constant :  the  limbs  and  branches  are  smooth 
and  clean,  hence  the  botanical  name  glabra.  As  a  name  for  this  tree, 
smooth  hickory  would  be  preferable  to  pignut.  Trunks  attain  a  height 
of  eighty  or  ninety  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  or  four,  but  the  extreme 
sizes  are  rare.  The  largest  specimens  are  found  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley, 
and  the  species  is  most  common  in  Missoiui  and  Arkansas.  It  grows 
farther  south  and  farther  west  than  any  other  hickory  except  pecan.  Its 
southern  limit  is  in  Florida  and  its  western  in  Texas. 

The  uses  of  hickory  fall  into  general  classes.  More  is  manufactured 
into  vehicles  than  into  any  other  single  class  of  commodities,  but  not 
more  than  into  all  other  articles  combined.  The  second  largest  users  of 
hickory  are  the  manufacturers  of  handles.  The  third  largest  demand 
comes  from  makers  of  agricultural  implements  and  farm  tools.     Large 

367 


368  American  Forest  Trees 

amounts  are  required  for  athletic  goods,  meat  smoking,  and  various 
miscellaneous  purposes.  The  total  amount  used  yearly  in  this  country, 
and  exported  to  foreign  countries,  is  not  acciu-ately  known,  but  it 
probably  exceeds  500,000,000  feet,  board  measure.  About  half  of  this 
passes  through  sawmills  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  other  half  goes 
directly  from  the  forest  to  the  factory  or  to  the  consumer. 

The  superiority  of  American  buggies,  sulkies,  and  other  light 
vehicles  is  due  to  the  hickory  in  their  construction.  No  other  wood 
equals  this  in  combination  of  desirable  physical  properties.  Though 
heavy,  it  is  so  strong,  tough,  and  resilient  that  small  amounts  suffice,  and 
the  weight  of  the  vehicle  can  be  reduced  to  a  lower  point,  without 
sacrificing  efficiency,  than  when  any  other  wood  is  employed.  It  is 
preeminently  a  wood  for  light  vehicles.  Oak,  ash,  maple,  and  elm 
answer  well  enough  for  heavy  wagons  where  strength  is  more  essential 
than  toughness  and  elasticity.  Hickory  is  suitable  for  practically  all 
wooden  parts  of  light  vehicles  except  the  body.  The  slender  spokes 
look  like  frail  dowels,  and  seem  unable  to  maintain  the  load,  but  appear- 
ances are  deceptive.  The  bent  rims  are  likewise  very  slender,  but  they 
last  better  than  steel.  The  shafts  and  poles  with  which  carriages  and 
carts  are  equipped  will  stand  severe  strains  and  twists  without  starting 
a  splinter.  The  manufacturing  of  the  stock  is  little  less  than  a  fine  art. 
In  scarcely  any  other  wood-using  industry — probably  excepting  the 
making  of  handles — is  the  grain  so  closely  watched.  Hickory  users 
generally  speak  of  the  annual  growth  rings  as  the  grain.  The  grain 
must  run  straight  in  spokes,  rims,  shafts,  and  poles.  If  the  grain  crosses 
the  stick,  a  break  may  occur  by  the  simple  process  of  splitting,  and  the 
hickory  in  that  case  is  no  more  dependable  than  many  other  woods. 

Handle  makers  observe  the  same  rule,  and  must  have  straight 
grain.  The  more  slender  the  handle,  the  more  strictly  the  rule  must  be 
followed.  A  cross  grained  golf  club  handle  would  fail  at  the  first  stroke. 
An  ax  handle,  if  it  has  cross  grain,  will  last  a  little  longer,  but  it  will 
speedily  split.  Many  of  the  best  slender  handles  are  of  split  hickoiy. 
The  line  of  cleavage  follows  the  grain,  but  a  saw  does  not  always  do  so. 
Heavy  handles,  like  those  for  picks  and  sledges,  are  not  so  strictly 
straight  grained,  because  they  are  made  strong  enough  to  stand  much 
more  strain  than  is  ever  likely  to  be  put  on  them.  Red  heartwood  is 
frequently  used  in  handles  of  that  kind.  Peavey  and  canthook  handles 
are  generally  split  from  billets,  because  the  grain  must  be  straight. 
Though  they  are  among  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  handles,  breakage 
must  be  guarded  against  with  extra  care,  for  the  snap  of  a  peavey  handle 
at  a  critical  moment  might  cost  the  operator  his  life  by  precipitating 
a  skidway  of  logs  upon  him. 


American  Forest  Trees  369 

The  hickory  which  goes  into  agricultural  implements  fills  many 
places,  among  the  most  important  being  connecting  rods.  It  is  often 
made  into  springs  to  take  up  or  check  oscillation.  It  is  used  for  that 
purpose  as  picker  sticks  in  textile  mills. 

Furniture  makers  could  get  along  without  hickory,  and  they  do  not 
need  much.  It  is  oftenest  seen  in  dowels,  slender  spindles,  and  the 
rungs  of  chairs.  The  makers  of  sporting  and  athletic  goods  bend  it  for 
rackets,    hoops,  and  rims,  or  make  vaulting  poles,  bats,  or  trapezes. 

Shellbark  Hickory  (Hicoria  laciniosa)  is  often  mistaken  for 
shagbark.  The  ranges  of  the  two  species  coincide  in  part  only.  Shag- 
bark  grows  farther  east,  north  and  south  than  shellbark.  The  latter 
occupies  an  island,  as  it  were,  inside  the  shagbark's  range.  Shellbark  is 
found  from  central  New  York  and  eastern  Pennsylvania,  westward  to 
Kansas,  and  southward  to  North  Carolina  and  middle  Tennessee.  The 
species  is  at  its  best  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley  and  in  Missouri.  The 
largest  trees  are  120  feet  high  and  three  in  diameter,  and  are  often  free 
from  branches  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  length.  The  species  prefers  rich, 
deep  bottom  lands,  and  does  not  suffer  from  occasional  inundation 
from  overflowing  rivers.  The  average  tree  is  not  quite  as  large  as  shag- 
bark.  The  leaves  are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  hickory,  ranging  in 
length  from  fifteen  to  twenty-two  inches.  There  are  from  five  to  nine 
leaflets,  usually  seven.  The  upper  ones  are  largest,  and  may  be  eight 
or  nine  inches  long  and  four  or  five  wide.  In  the  autumn  the  leaflets 
drop  from  the  petioles  which  adhere  to  the  branches  and  furnish  means 
of  identifying  the  tree  in  winter.  The  nuts  including  the  hulls  are  as 
large  as  small  apples.  When  ripe,  the  hulls  open  and  the  nuts  fall  out; 
but  the  hulls  fall  also.  The  nuts  are  as  large  as  shagbark  nuts,  but  the 
two  are  seldom  distinguished  in  market,  though  the  shagbark's  are  a 
little  richer  in  flavor.  The  bark's  roughness  gives  the  tree  its  name. 
Strips  three  or  four  feet  long  and  five  or  six  inches  wide  curl  up  at  the 
lower  ends — sometimes  at  both  ends  —  and  adhere  to  the  trunk  several 
years.  The  species  has  other  names.  It  is  known  as  big  shellbark 
in  Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
Illinois,  and  Kansas;  bottom  shellbark  in  Illinois;  western  shellbark  or 
simply  shellbark  in  Rhode  Island  and  Kentucky;  thick  shellbark  in 
South  Carolina,  Indiana,  and  Tennessee;  kingnut  in  Tennessee. 

The  wood  weighs  50.53  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  very  hard, 
strong,  tough,  and  flexible.  The  heartwood  is  dark  brown,  the  sapwood 
nearly  white.  This  hickory  usually  has  less  sapwood  in  proportion  to 
heart  than  other  members  of  the  species;  but  the  wood  is  not  kept 
separate  from  the  others  when  it  goes  to  market,  and  its  uses  are  as 
extensive  as  the  other  hickories'.    It  is  believed  by  some  foresters  that 


370 


American  Forest  Trees 


shellbark  hickory  is  worth  cultivating  for  its  nuts,  as  it  is  a  vigorous 
bearer;  but  little  planting  has  been  done.  East  of  the  Alleghanies, 
particularly  in  Virginia,  some  planting  has  been  carried  out  on  old 
plantations  for  ornamental  purposes.  On  accoimt  of  its  long  taproot, 
the  tree  is  difficult  to  transplant,  and  the  nuts  should  be  planted  where 
the  trees  are  expected  to  remain. 


PECAN 


PECAN 

{Hicoria  Pecan) 

THE  name  is  pecan  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  CaroHna, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  and  Kansas;  pecan  nut  and  pecan  tree  in  Louisiana.  The  name 
is  of  Indian  origin,  and  means  walnut.  The  tree's  natural  range  is 
smaller  than  the  present  area  in  which  the  tree  is  found,  for  it  has  been 
extensively  planted  in  recent  years.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  Iowa, 
south  to  Texas,  and  east  to  Alabama  and  Kentucky.  The  highest 
development  of  the  wild  tree  is  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley.  Forest  trees 
were  once  found  there  which  were  said  to  be  six  feet  in  diameter  and  170 
high.     Specimens  that  large  would  be  hard  to  find  now. 

The  pecan  is  a  hickory.  As  to  wood,  it  is  the  poorest  of  the  hickor- 
ies, and  as  to  nuts  it  is  the  best.  Its  compound  leaves  are  from  twelve 
to  twenty  inches  long  with  from  nine  to  seventeen  leaflets.  The  latter 
are  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  from  one  to  three  wide.  The 
first  pairs  on  the  petiole  are  smallest.  The  fruit  grows  in  clusters  of 
from  three  to  eleven,  the  number  exceeding  any  other  hickory.  The  nuts 
are  four-angled,  and  long  for  their  width. 

The  wood  of  pecan  has  disappointed  those  who  have  attempted 
to  use  it  like  other  hickories.  It  does  not  differ  much  from  them  in 
appearance,  but  it  falls  low  in  mechanical  tests.  In  strength,  toughness, 
and  stiffness  it  is  inferior  to  the  poorest  of  the  other  hickories.  It  has 
less  than  half  the  strength  and  half  the  stiffness  of  shagbark  hickory. 
It  is  a  fairly  good  fuel,  but  is  high  in  ash. 

The  inferior  quality  of  the  wood  has  saved  many  a  pecan  tree  from 
the  sawmill  and  the  wagon  shop.  Fine  trunks  stand  near  public  high- 
ways, along  river  banks,  and  in  fields,  while  all  merchantable  hickories 
of  other  species  have  been  sent  to  market.  The  uses  of  the  wood  are 
few.  If  some  of  it  goes  to  wagon  shops  or  to  factories  where  agricultural 
vehicles  are  made,  it  is  employed  for  parts  which  are  not  required  to 
endure  strain  or  sustain  sudden  jars. 

Fortunately  it  is  a  tree  with  a  value  of  another  kind.  It  is  the 
most  important  nut  tree  of  the  United  States  at  this  time,  and  it  promises 
to  remain  so.  The  forest-grown  pecans  were  an  article  of  food  for 
Indians  who  once  lived  in  the  region,  and  though  white  settlers  who 
succeeded  the  Indians  as  occupants  of  the  land,  depended  less  upon  forest 
fruits  than  the  red  men  had  done,  yet  the  pecan  was  often  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  early  years  of  settlement.  The  nuts  have  constituted 
an  article  of  commerce  ever  since  the  region  had  markets. 


374  American  Forest  Trees 

Nurserymen  were  not  slow  to  recognize  the  value  of  the  pecan  tree 
for  planting  purposes,  and  nursery  grown  stock  has  been  on  the  market 
many  years.  Extensive  orchards  have  been  planted  in  Texas,  Louisiana, 
Florida,  and  other  southern  states,  and  some  of  the  earliest  of  these 
orchards  are  now  in  bearing.  However,  by  far  the  largest  part  of  pecans 
on  the  market  is  wild  fruit  from  the  forests.  Many  are  shipped  in  from 
Mexico,  but  most  grow  in  the  rich  woods  of  southern  states.  They  are 
gathered  like  chestnuts  in  northern  woods.  The  people  who  pick  them 
sell  to  local  stores  at  low  prices,  often  taking  pay  in  merchandise. 
Buyers  collect  the  stock  from  country  and  village  merchants,  and  put  it 
on  the  general  market,  often  at  three  or  foiu"  times  the  price  paid  to  the 
gatherers  of  the  nuts. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  connected  with  pecan  is  the 
large  number  of  horticultural  varieties  which  have  been  produced  by 
cultivation  and  selection.  More  than  seventy  have  been  listed  in  nur- 
sery catalogues  and  special  reports.  Some  of  the  nuts  are  twice  the  size 
of  those  of  the  forest,  and  shells  have  been  reduced  in  thinness  until 
some  of  them  are  really  thinner  than  they  should  be  to  stand  the  rough 
usage  which  comes  to  them  in  reaching  markets. 

Dealers  occasionally  polish  pecans  to  impart  the  rich,  brown 
color  which  is  supposed  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  being  fresh  and  of 
high  grade.  The  polishing  is  produced  by  friction,  when  the  nuts  in 
bulk  are  shaken  violently.  Last  year's  stock  takes  on  as  bright  a  polish 
as  fresh  stock,  and  the  color  and  smoothness  alone  are  not  sufficient  to 
prove  that  pecans  are  fresh  from  the  trees. 

The  planted  pecan  tree  grows  rapidly  and  is  as  easily  raised  as  fruit 
trees.  The  wild  tree  is  long-lived,  and  the  cultivated  varieties  will 
probably  be  like  it. 

Nutmeg  Hickory  (Hicoria  myristiccoformis)  is  so  named  because  the  nut  has 
the  size  and  the  wrinkled  surface  of  a  nutmeg,  though  the  shape  is  different.  The 
husk  enclosing  the  nut  is  almost  as  thin  as  paper.  The  only  other  name  by  which  it  is 
known  is  bitter  waternut,  in  Louisiana.  The  name  scarcely  applies,  for  the  kernel  is 
said  not  to  be  bitter.  The  range  of  nutmeg  hickory  extends  from  the  coast  of  South 
Carolina  to  Arkansas.  It  is  rather  abundant  in  Arkansas,  but  scarce  in  most  other 
parts  of  its  range.  The  tree  has  several  interesting  features.  It  was  partly  discover- 
ed a  long  time  before  the  discovery  was  complete.  In  1802  Andre  F.  Michaux  saw 
the  nut  and  to  that  extent  the  species  was  discovered,  but  many  years  passed  before 
a  full  description  was  given  to  the  world  by  a  competent  botanist.  The  wood  rates 
among  the  strongest  and  stiffest  of  all  the  hickories,  according  to  present  information; 
but  the  calculations  were  based  on  too  few  tests  to  be  considered  final.  Two  samples 
of  wood  procured  near  Bonneau's  depot,  South  Carolina,  by  W.  H.  Revenel,  showed 
the  remarkable  breaking  strength  of  19,822  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  measure 
of  stiffness  exceeded  2,000,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  That  strength  is  sixteen 
per  cent  above  shagbark.  The  weight  of  nutmeg  hickory  is  46.96  pounds  to  the 
cubic  foot.     The  wood  is  hard,  tough,  and  compact.     The  structure,  including  pores, 


American  Forest  Trees  375 

medullary  rays,  annual  rings,  spring\vood  and  summerwood,  is  similar  to  the  wood  of 
other  hickories.  Trees  grow  best  in  sandy  soil  but  near  swamps  and  rivers  where 
there  is  plenty  of  water.  The  largest  trunks  are  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet  in  height 
and  two  in  diameter.  When  use  is  made  of  this  hickory  it  serves  the  same  purposes 
as  the  wood  of  other  trees  of  the  group.  It  is  never  reported  separately  in  statistics 
of  wood  utilization.  It  is  loo  scarce  to  be  important  as  a  timber  tree.  It  apparently 
has  a  future  as  an  ornament,  though  it  has  not  yet  been  widely  planted.  It  has 
proved  a  success  in  the  Carolinas  and  it  thrives  in  the  climate  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  luster  of  its  foliage  makes  it  the  most  beautiful  of  the  hickories.  In  common  with 
other  members  of  the  genus,  its  long  taproot  renders  the  transplanting  of  nursery 
stock  difficult. 

Water  Hickory  (Hicoria  aquaika)  is  known  as  swamp  hickory  in  South 
Carolina,  Florida,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana ;  bitter  pecan  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana, 
and  water  bitternut  in  Tennessee  and  South  Carolina.  The  northern  limit  of  this 
species  is  in  Virginia  near  Mobjack  bay,  the  southern  limit  in  the  Caloosa  valley, 
Florida,  west  to  the  Brazos  river,  Texas,  and  north  to  southern  Illinois.  The  wood  is 
hard,  heavy, strong,  but  rather  brittle;  the  sapwood  is  thick  and  often  is  nearly  white, 
while  the  heartwood  is  dark  brown.  It  is  the  most  porous  of  the  hickories,  and  the 
pores  are  distributed  generally  through  the  annual  rings  of  growth.  In  other  hickor- 
ies they  are  largely  restricted  to  the  iimer  part  of  each  ring,  though  a  few  are  dispersed 
through  all  parts.  In  swamp  hickory  there  is  little  difference  in  appearance  between 
the  wood  grown  early  in  the  season  and  that  produced  later.  The  tree  is  a  rapid 
grower.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  deep  swamps,  and  if  the  land  is  inundated  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  year,  the  tree  seems  to  grow  all  the  better.  At  its  best  it  may  attain 
a  height  of  100  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  two,  but  that  size  is  unusual.  The  nut  is 
small  and  wrinkled,  and  when  broken  open,  pockets  of  red  bitter  powder  are  frequent- 
ly found  inside  the  shell.  Usually  the  nuts  are  too  bitter  to  be  eaten,  but  it  is  said 
that  near  the  western  limit  of  the  tree's  range,  nuts  are  sometimes  edible. 

The  only  reported  uses  for  the  wood  are  fuel  and  fencing.  It  is  poor  fence 
material,  because,  like  other  hickories,  it  decays  in  a  short  time  when  exposed  to 
weather.  The  wood  of  this  genus  is  rich  in  foods  on  which  decay-producing  fungi 
feed.  Fungus  is  a  low  order  of  plant  life  which  sends  its  hair-like  threads  into  the 
wood  cells  and  consumes  the  material  found  there;  but  numerous  insects  bore  into 
wood  to  procure  food.  Few  woods  suffer  from  such  attacks  more  than  hickory. 
Even  after  it  is  seasoned  and  manufactured  into  commodities,  it  is  frequently  attack- 
ed by  various  species  of  powder  post  beetles,  and  much  injury  results.  Water  hickory 
while  yet  standing  is  often  greatly  damaged  by  the  larv£e  of  certain  moths  which  find 
their  way  into  the  soft  wood  just  under  the  bark  and  tunnel  minute  galleries  which 
subsequently  fill  with  brown  substance.  According  to  R.  B.  Hough,  these  brown 
streaks  in  water  hickory  are  hard  enough  to  turn  the  edge  of  steel  tools.  They  not 
only  damage  the  structure  of  the  wood  but  spoil  its  appearance. 

Bitter  Peca.n  {Hicoria  texana)  is  a  Texas  species  which  has  not  been  reported 
elsewhere.  The  average  size  of  the  tree  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  height 
and  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter;  but  in  rich  bottom  land,  particularly  along  the 
Brazos  river,  specimens  sometimes  attain  a  diameter  of  three  feet  and  a  height  of  100. 
The  leaves  are  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  with  from  seven  to  eleven  leaflets. 
The  nuts  are  very  bitter,  but  are  of  approximately  the  same  size  and  shape  as  edible 
pecans.  The  shells  are  thin  and  very  brittle.  The  tree's  range  extends  inland  100 
or  150  miles  from  the  Texas  coast. 


376  American  Forest  Trees 

North  Carolina  Shagbark  Hickory  (likoria  carol nuc-sefttentrionalis)  is 
found  in  the  neighboring  parts  of  the  four  states:  North  Carolina.  Georgia,  Tennessee; 
and  Alabama.  In  the  best  land  this  tree  is  occasionally  eighty  feet  high  and  two  or 
three  in  diameter,  but  when  it  occurs  on  dry  hillsides  its  average  height  is  twenty  or 
thirty  feet,  and  its  diameter  about  a  foot.  The  compound  leaves  are  from  four  to 
eight  inches  long,  with  usually  three,  but  occasionally  five  leaflets.  The  sweet  nuts 
are  small  and  brown.  The  bark  separates  into  thick  strips  a  foot  or  more  in  length 
and  three  or  four  inches  wide.  The  rough  trunk  resembles  the  northern  shagbark 
hickory.  The  wood  is  very  tough,  strong,  and  hard,  the  heart  light  reddish-brown, 
the  thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  It  is  not  distinguished  from  the  other  hickories  in 
commerce,  and  it  has  the  same  uses  when  any  use  is  made  of  it. 


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^^|s|.. 

White  Elm 

WHITE  ELM 

(Ulmus  Americana) 

SIX  species  of  elm  occur  in  the  United  States,  not  counting  the  planer 
tree  as  an  elm,  though  lumbermen  usually  consider  it  as  such.*  The 
white  elm  is  the  most  common,  is  distributed  most  widely,  and  is  com- 
mercially the  most  important.  More  of  it  is  used  as  lumber,  slack  coop- 
erage, and  other  forms  of  forest  products,  than  all  other  elms  of  this 
country  combined.  The  statistics  of  sawmill  output  collected  annually 
by  the  United  States  census  are  not  compiled  in  a  way  to  show  the  elms 
separately.  All  go  in  as  one.  The  annual  lumber  cut  of  elm  in  the  whole 
country  is  about  265,000,000  feet,  distributed  over  thirty-four  states, 
with  Wisconsin  leading,  followed  in  the  order  named  by  Michigan,  Ind- 
iana, Ohio,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  New  York,  and  Minnesota.  In  addition 
to  lumber,  elm  furnishes  about  130,000,000  slack  cooperage  staves 
yearly. 

The  elms,  taken  as  a  class,  are  much  alike.  There  is  more  resem- 
blance between  the  species  than  between  species  of  oaks  or  pines,  yet 
some  difference  exists  between  elms.  This  holds  not  only  between 
different  species,  but  between  individuals  of  the  same  species.  Climate, 
situation,  and  soil  have  much  to  do  with  the  character  of  the  wood  of 
the  same  species.  So  great  is  the  difference  at  times  that  fairly  good 
judges  of  timber  are  deceived  as  to  the  species.  A  tree  growing  on  dry, 
rocky  soil  produces  wood  quite  different  from  one  on  rich,  deep,  well- 
watered  soil.  Not  only  is  the  wood  of  one  different  from  that  of  the 
other,  but  the  appearances  of  the  standing  trees  are  not  alike.  The 
differences  may  not  show  in  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  as  much  as  in  the 
shapes  and  sizes  of  trees,  and  the  habit  of  the  branches. 

White  elm  is  by  common  consent  the  type  of  the  genus,  the  stand- 
ard by  which  the  other  species  are  measured.  It  is  proper  to  compare 
certain  properties  and  characters  of  other  elms  with  white  elm,  in  order 
that  a  general  view  of  all  may  be  had.  The  dry  weights,  per  cubic  foot, 
of  wood  are  as  follows:  White  elm  40.54  pounds,  slippery  elm  43.35, 
cedar  elm  45.15,  cork  elm  45.26,  and  wing  elm  46.69.  Figures  which 
show  the  weight  of  the  southern  red  elm  {Ulmus  serotina)  are  not  avail- 
able.    White  elm  is  thus  shown  to  be  lightest  of  the  group. 

Its  breaking  strength  averages  12,158  pounds  per  cubic  inch,  under 


*The  elms  are  white  elm  {Ulmus  americand),  cork  elm  {Ulmus  racemosa), 
slippery  elm  {Ulmus  pubescens),  cedar  elm  {Ulmus  crassifoUa),  wing  elm  (Ulmus 
alata),  and  red  elm  {Ulmus  serotina).  They  are  all  confined  to  the  region  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 


380  American  Forest  Trees 

the  usual  tests  by  which  the  strength  of  woods  is  determined.  Reduced 
to  everyday  language  that  means  that  12,1.58  pounds  would  just  break 
a  white  elm  stick,  2  J  inches  square,  and  resting  on  supports  twelve  inches 
apart.  That  is  the  meaning  of  "breaking  strength,"  or  "modulus  of 
rupture,"  as  the  term  is  used  in  engineering  text  books  relating  to  woods. 
The  following  figures  for  the  breaking  strength  of  other  elms  make 
comparisons  w-ith  white  elm  easy:  Cedar  elm  11,000;  wing  elm  11,162; 
slippery  elm  12,342;  cork  elm  (often  called  rock  elm)  15,172.  It  is 
shown  that  two  elms  are  stronger  and  two  weaker  than  white  elm.  This 
wood  rates  very  little  below  white  oak  in  strength. 

The  different  species  of  elms  vary  considerably  in  stiffness,  or  the 
ability  to  spring  back  when  bent.  This  factor  is  expressed  by  engineers 
in  high  figures,  is  purely  technical,  and  is  based  on  a  wood's  ability  to 
stretch  and  regain  its  former  position.  The  only  service  which  the 
figm^es  can  render  to  the  layman  is  to  furnish  a  basis  for  comparing  one 
wood  with  another.  The  stiffer  a  wood,  the  greater  its  resistance  to  an 
effort  to  stretch  it  lengthwise.  White  elm's  measure  of  stiffness 
(modulus  of  elasticity)  is  1,070,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  wing  elm 
853,000;  cedar  elm  981,000;  slippery  elm  1,318,000;  cork  elm  1,512,000. 
It  is  shown  here,  as  was  shown  in  the  figiires  representing  the  strength  of 
the  elms,  that  two  species  rate  above  and  two  below  white  elm  in 
stiffness. 

White  elm  is  known  by  several  names.  The  color  of  the  bark  is 
responsible  for  the  name  gray  elm  among  lumbermen  and  woodworkers 
of  the  Lake  States.  American  elm  is  a  translation  of  its  botanical  name, 
and  is  neither  descriptive  nor  definitive,  because  there  are  other  elms  as 
truly  American  as  this  one.  White  elm  distinguishes  its  wood  from  the 
redder  wood  of  slippery  elm,  but  it  would  often  be  difficult  if  not  im- 
possible to  identify  the  elms,  or  any  one  of  them,  by  the  color  of  the 
wood  alone.  Some  persons  who  call  this  elm  white  doubtless  refer  to  the 
color  of  the  bark,  as  is  the  case  with  those  who  speak  of  it  as  gray  elm. 
It  is  known  as  water  elm  in  several  states,  but  that  name  is  applied 
indiscriminately  to  any  elm  that  frequents  river  banks,  as  most  of  them 
do  in  some  part  of  their  range.  It  is  called  rock  elm  when  it  is  found  on 
stony  uplands,  and  swamp  elm  on  low  wet  ground.  In  some  parts  of  the 
Appalachian  mountain  ranges  it  is  called  astringent  elm  to  distinguish 
it  from  slippery  elm. 

White  elm  surpasses  the  others  in  extent  of  range.  Its  northern 
boundary  stretches  from  Newfoundland,  across  Canada  to  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  a  distance  of  nearly  3,000  miles.  It  runs 
south  through  the  Atlantic  states  to  Florida,  a  distance  of  1,200  miles  or 
more.     Its  southwestern  limit  is  in  Texas.     The  area  thus  bounded  is 


American  Forest  Trees  381 

about  2,500,000  square  miles.  A  few  other  trees  have  ranges  as  large, 
but  none  much  exceed  it.  It  covers  so  much  of  America,  and  is  so 
important  in  many  parts  of  its  range,  that  it  is  clearly  the  leading  elm  in 
this  country.     It  is  entitled  to  first  place  among  elms  for  other  reasons. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  any  sure  features  or  characteristics  by  which 
the  layman  may  always  distinguish  this  elm  from  others  with  which  it  is 
associated ;  however,  by  carefully  observing  certain  features,  the  identity 
of  white  elm  is  generally  easy  to  establish. 

The  leaves  have  teeth  along  the  margins  like  beech  and  birch. 
They  have  straight  primary  veins  running  from  the  midrib  to  the  points 
of  the  teeth.  Before  falling  m  autumn  the  leaves  turn  yellow.  The 
foliage  is  not  very  thick,  and  most  of  it  is  near  the  ends  of  the  limbs. 
The  bloom  comes  early  in  the  spring,  ahead  of  the  leaves,  and  the  seeds 
are  ripe  and  ready  for  flight  before  the  leaves  are  grown.  Sometimes 
the  seeds  are  ripe  almost  before  the  leaves  are  out  of  the  buds.  The 
seeds  are  oblong,  and  about  the  size  of  a  small  lentil.  The  wing  entirely 
surrounds  the  seed,  and  is  about  half  an  inch  long.  The  flight  of  elm 
seeds  is  an  interesting  phenomenon.  The  individual  seeds  are  so  small 
that  they  are  not  easily  seen  as  they  sail  away  from  the  tall  tree  top  but 
when  they  go  in  swarms,  in  fitful  puffs  of  wind,  they  are  not  hard  to  see. 
It  is  chiefly  by  their  fruits  that  they  are  kno\vn,  that  is,  by  the  midti- 
tudes  of  seedlings  that  appear  a  few  weeks  later.  If  one  seedling  elm  in 
a  thousand  should  reach  maturity,  there  would  be  little  besides  elms  in 
the  whole  cotmtry.  They  spring  up  by  highways  and  hedges,  in  gutters, 
fields,  and  even  between  cobbles  and  bricks  of  paved  streets ;  but  in  a 
few  days  they  have  crowded  one  another  to  death,  or  have  perished  from 
other  causes,  and  those  which  manage  to  live  to  maturity  do  not  much 
more  than  make  up  for  old  trees  which  perish  from  natural  causes. 

The  botanist  Michaux  pronounced  the  white  elm  "the  most  magni- 
ficent vegetable  of  the  temperate  zone."  A  number  of  trees  are  larger, 
though  this  reaches  great  size.  Sargent  sets  the  limit  of  the  tree  at  120 
feet  high  and  eleven  feet  in  trunk  diameter.  That  size  is,  of  course, 
unusual,  but  it  has  been  surpassed  at  least  in  height.  A  tree  in  Jefferson 
county,  Pennsylvania,  was  140  feet  high,  and  although  forest  grown,  it 
had  a  spread  of  crown  of  seventy-six  feet.  It  was  sent  to  the  sawmill 
where  it  made  8,820  feet  of  lumber.  That  trunk  was  only  five  feet  in 
diameter. 

Some  of  the  finest  forest  grown  elms  in  this  country  have  been  cut 
in  Michigan.  Their  trunks  were  as  tall,  straight,  and  shapely  as  yellow 
poplars,  and  their  crowns  surpassed  those  of  poplars.  It  was  formerly 
not  unusual  for  sawlogs  to  be  cut  from  elm  limbs  which  branched  from 
the  trunk  fifty  or  more  feet  from  the  ground.      The  best  of  the  forest 


382  Amekicax  Forest  Trees 

grown  elm  of  this  country  has  been  cut;  but  it  is  still  lumbered  through- 
out the  whole  eastern  half  of  the  United  States. 

The  finest  elms  of  this  country,  and  doubtless  the  finest  in  the 
world,  are  the  planted  trees  in  some  of  the  New  England  villages. 
The  largest  of  them  have  been  growing  for  two  hundred  years,  and  in 
many  instances  they  still  show  the  vigor  of  youth.  Trunks  six  or  seven 
feet  through  are  not  uncommon,  but  the  glory  of  the  trees  is  not  alone  in 
the  trunks.  Their  spread  and  form  of  cro\vn  are  magnificent.  The 
largest  are  150  feet  across,  and  some  of  the  splendid  branches,  rising  in 
parabolic  curves,  are  fully  100  feet  long,  from  the  junction  with  the  tree 
to  the  tips  of  the  twigs.  The  most  apt  comparison  for  that  form  of  elm 
is  the  spray  of  a  fountain.  The  upward  jet  of  water  corresponds  to  the 
trunk  of  the  tree;  the  upward,  outward,  and  downward  curves  of  th^ 
spray  represent  the  crown  of  the  elm.  Trees  which  take  that  form  are 
grown  in  open  ground  where  sunlight  and  air  reach  every  side.  Forest 
grown  trees  are  less  symmetrical,  but  even  in  dense  woods,  the  elm 
frequently  rises  clear  above  the  canopy  of  other  trees,  and  develops  the 
fountain  form  of  crown.  The  new  England  street  and  park  elms  surpass 
those  farther  west  only  because  they  are  older.  The  splendid  trunks 
and  crowns  are  the  work  of  centuries. 


CORK  ELM 


CORK  ELM 

{Ulmus  Racemosa) 

THIS  tree  is  called  cork  elm  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Arkansas,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  Ohio;  rock  elm  in  Rhode  Island,  Ken- 
tucky, West  Virginia,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Michigan, 
Nebraska;  hickory  elm  in  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Indiana;  white  elm 
in  Ontario;  Thomas  elm  in  Tennessee;  northern  cork-barked  elm  in 
Tennessee;  corkbark  elm.  New  York;  northern  cork  elm,  Vermont; 
wahoo,  Ohio ;  cliff  elm  in  Wisconsin. 

Cork  elm  is  the  natural  name.  It  is  a  descriptive  term  which  a 
stranger  would  be  apt  to  apply  on  seeing  the  tree  for  the  first  time. 
The  bark  of  the  branches,  after  it  has  attained  an  age  of  three  or  four 
years,  becomes  rough  by  the  growth  of  ridges  and  protuberances.  This 
feature  is  sometimes  so  prominent  that  it  at  once  attracts  attention, 
particularly  when  the  branches  are  bare  of  leaves ;  hence  the  name  cork 
elm. 

Lumbermen  insist  on  naming  the  tree  rock  elm.  They  refer  to  the 
hardness  of  the  wood,  or  they  may  have  in  mind  the  dry,  stony  situations 
where  tough,  strong  elm  grows.  The  latter  is  often  the  case,  because  the 
name  is  applied  also  to  slippery  elm  and  white  elm  if  they  grow  on  stony 
ground.  A  wide-spread  opinion  prevails  that  wood  which  grows  among 
rocks  is  harder,  tougher,  stronger,  and  more  durable  than  that  produced 
by  deep,  fertile  soil.  It  is  possible  to  cite  much  evidence  to  support  that 
view,  and  the  case  might  be  considered  proved,  but  for  the  fact  that  an 
equal,  or  greater  amount  of  evidence,  in  every  way  as  trustworthy, 
may  be  cited  on  the  other  side.  The  strongest  hickory,  ash,  and  oak  do 
not  come  from  stony  land.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  species  with 
tough,  strong  wood,  is  found  on  rocks,  but  it  is  not  tough  because  it  is 
there,  but  in  spite  of  being  there. 

The  name  cliff  elm  which  this  tree  bears  in  Wisconsin  is  but  another 
form  of  the  name  rock  elm,  and  clearly  has  reference  to  the  situation 
where  the  tree  grows  in  that  part  of  the  country.  Hickory  elm,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  name  applied  to  this  tree  much  farther  south,  is  a  recog- 
nition of  the  woods  toughness. 

In  some  particulars  it  does  not  fall  much  below  hickory  in  tough- 
ness, but  is  not  as  strong,  elastic,  or  capable  of  as  smooth  polish.  The 
latter  property  is  one  of  the  recommendations  of  hickory  when  used  for 
handles.  It  is  very  smooth  to  the  touch;  cork  elm  is  less  so.  In  the 
northern  woods,  elm  ax  handles  are  in  use,  and  some  axmen  prefer  them 


386  American  Forest  Trees 

to  hickory.  Such  is  probably  the  case  when  the  best  cork  elm  and  a 
medium  or  poor  quality  of  hickory  are  in  competition. 

The  fibers  of  cork  elm  are  interlaced,  rendering  the  splitting  of  the 
wood  difficult.  For  uses  in  which  that  is  a  desirable  property,  it  is 
preferable  to  hickory.  It  is  better  for  hubs  for  large  wagons,  and  that  is 
a  very  important  use  for  this  elm. 

The  wood  of  all  the  elms  is  ring-porous;  that  is,  the  springwood,  or 
inner  part  of  the  annual  ring,  consists  of  one  or  more  rows  of  large  ducts. 
The  summerwood  contains  pores  in  large  numbers,  but  they  are  small, 
and  are  usually  arranged  in  short  curved  lines.  The  medullary  rays  are 
not  prominent  in  the  wood  of  any  of  the  elms,  and  quarter-sawing  adds 
no  beauty  to  the  lumber.  The  wood  is  practically  without  figure,  on 
account  of  either  annual  rings  or  medullary  rays;  but  it  may  be  stained, 
polished,  and  made  very  attractive.  That  is  done  oftener  with  white 
elm  than  with  any  other. 

The  strength  of  cork  elm  created  demand  for  it  in  boat  building  at 
an  early  day.  The  tree  is  and  always  was  scarce  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Atlantic  sea  board,  and  the  earliest  boat  builders  seem  not  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  the  wood.  It  was  most  abundant  in  the  forests  of 
Michigan,  though  it  extended  westward  to  Nebraska.  It  was  plentiful 
in  the  province  of  Ontario,  and  the  timbers  from  that  region  acquainted 
English  shipbuilders  with  the  merits  of  the  wood.  They  sent  contractors 
into  Michigan  to  buy  cork  elm,  long  before  the  other  hardwoods  of  that 
region  had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  outside  world.  The  most 
convenient  supplies  of  cork  elm  on  the  Lower  Michigan  peninsula  thus 
passed  through  Canada  to  ship  yards  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea.  The 
wood  is  reputed  to  be  more  durable  than  any  of  the  other  elms. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  the  country's  supply  of  cork  elm  is 
running  short,  but  there  are  no  statistics  which  show  how  much  is  left 
or  how  much  has  been  cut.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  original  forests,  includ- 
ing the  whole  country,  had  one  tree  of  cork  elm  to  twenty  of  white  elm. 
The  average  size  of  cork  elm  is  sixty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter.  The 
trunks  are  well  shaped,  if  forest  grown.  They  develop  small  crowns  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  trunks;  and  the  crowns  are  less  graceful  than 
those  of  white  elm  —  lacking  tlie  long,  sweeping  curves  of  the  latter. 
The  general  contour  of  the  tree  has  been  compared  to  white  oak. 

Cork  elm  grows  well  when  planted  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  environ- 
ments quite  different  from  its  native  habitat.  In  the  forest  it  increases 
in  size  slowly;  when  planted  it  makes  much  better  headway.  It  has  a 
disagreeable  habit  of  sprouting  which  puts  it  out  of  favor  as  a  park  tree. 

The  wood  of  the  different  elms  is  largely  used  for  manufacturing 
purposes.     They  are  sometimes  kept  separate,  but  generally  not.     The 


American  Forest  Trees  387 

particular  place  where  cork  elm  is  preferred  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
vehicles  and  boats,  but  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  those  commodities. 

The  state  of  Michigan  alone  sends  50,000,000  feet  of  elm  a  year  to  its 
factories  to  be  converted  into  articles  of  general  utility.  Furniture 
makers  take  over  2,000,000  feet  of  it,  though  elm  is  not  classed  as  a 
furniture  wood.  In  certain  places  it  is  superior  to  almost  every 
other  wood.  No  matter  how  discolored  it  becomes  by  weathering  and 
the  accumulation  of  foreign  substances,  a  vigorous  application  of  soap, 
water,  and  a  scrubbing  brush  will  whiten  it.  It  is  liked  in  certain  parts 
of  refrigerators  which  need  constant  scrubbing.  Elm  to  the  extent  of 
8,000,000  feet  goes  into  refrigerators  in  Michigan  alone. 

The  strength  and  toughness  of  elm  make  it  suitable  for  frames  of 
tables.  When  thus  used,  it  is  generally  out  of  sight,  but  not  infrequently 
it  is  made  into  table  legs  as  well  as  frames.  Statistics  show  that  more 
than  a  million  feet  are  manufactured  yearly  into  handles  in  Michigan 
alone.  All  three  of  the  northern  elms — white,  cork,  and  slippery — are 
listed  in  the  handle  industry. 

Many  millions  of  feet  of  elm  are  yearly  converted  into  automobile 
stock — 3,000,000  in  Michigan.  Horse-drawn  vehicles  take  more. 
The  most  common  place  for  it  is  the  hub,  but  it  serves  also  as  shafts, 
poles,  reaches,  and  even  as  spokes  for  wagons  of  the  largest  size. 

The  important  place  in  the  slack  cooperage  industry  held  by  elm  is 
well  known.  It  is  a  flour  barrel  wood,  but  is  employed  for  barrels  of 
many  other  kinds.  It  stands  high  as  veneer,  not  the  kind  of  which  the 
visible  parts  of  furniture  are  made,  but  the  invisible  interior,  built  up  of 
veneer  sheets  glued  together.  A  similar  kind  of  veneer  forms  the  boxes 
or  frames  of  trunks — the  part  to  be  covered  by  metal,  leather,  or  cloth. 
The  slats  which  strengthen  the  outside  of  trunks  are  frequently  of  elm. 

This  wood  is  not  in  favor  for  one  important  purpose,  hardwood 
distillation.  It  has  escaped  pretty  generally  also  from  being  employed 
as  a  farm  material,  on  account  of  its  poor  lasting  qualities.  Some  slip- 
pery elm  was  mauled  into  fence  rails  in  the  pioneer  days  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  southern  Michigan,  but  that  was  only  because  it  was  plentiful  and 
convenient.  Cork  elm  probably  never  made  a  fence  rail,  because  it  is 
so  unwedgeable  that  no  rail  splitter  would  have  anything  to  do  with  it. 
At  the  best,  it  is  but  a  temporary  makeshift  as  fence  posts,  but  by  apply- 
ing creosote  and  other  preservative  treatments  to  lessen  decay,  it  mea- 
sures up  with  most  other  post  woods. 

The  elms  are  not  indispensable  woods  in  this  countrj-,  but  their 
exhaustion,  should  it  ever  come,  will  leave  many  places  hard  to  fill.  As 
far  as  known,  no  woodlots  of  any  species  of  elm  have  been  planted  in  this 
coimtry,  and  there  is  little  prospect  that  any  will  be  planted,  because 


388  American  Forest  Trees 

the  slow  growth  of  the  trees  discoiu-ages  foresters.     A  century  or  two  is 
a  long  look  ahead. 

However,  the  exhaustion  of  no  species  of  the  elms  in  this  country- 
need  be  expected  soon.  The  most  apparent  peril  lies  ahead  of  cork  elm, 
because  it  never  was  abimdant,  and  demand,  which  has  been  large  for 
a  long  time,  is  still  strong.  The  species  is  scattered  over  more  than  200,- 
000  square  miles,  and  a  long  time  must  elapse  before  the  last  cork  elm 
finds  its  way  to  the  sawmill.  The  situation  of  white  elm  is  more 
promising.  It  may  be  among  the  last  trees  of  the  American  forests  to 
take  its  final  departure.  Its  wide  range  and  its  bounteous  seed  crops 
insure  a  supply,  though  not  necessarily  a  large  one,  for  a  long  time.  The 
greatest  peril  to  elms,  as  well  as  to  many  other  forest  trees,  is  that,  when 
weakened  by  depletion,  some  disease  will  attack  them  and  destroy  the 
remnants.  Experience  in  New  England  and  elsewhere  has  shown  that 
elm  has  no  great  resisting  power  when  a  strong  attack  is  made  upon  it. 


SLIPPERY  ELM 


SLIPPERY  ELM 

{Uhnus  Pubescens) 

THIS  tree  is  known  as  slippery  elm  in  every  state  where  it  grows, 
thirty  or  more;  but  in  some  localities  it  has  other  names  also.  It 
is  doubtful  if  any  person  who  is  acquainted  with  the  tree  would  fail  to 
recognize  it  by  the  name  slippery  elm,  though  some  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  lumber  only  might  not  know  it  by  that  name.  Those  who  call 
it  red  elm  have  in  mind  the  color  of  the  heartwood  which  is  of  deeper  red 
than  the  wood  of  any  other  elm,  or  they  may  refer  to  the  tawny  pubes- 
cence on  the  young  shoots  in  winter.  The  botanical  name  describes 
that  characteristic. 

In  the  North,  the  slippery  elm  is  sometimes  known  as  moose  elm. 
II:  fiu-nishes  forage  in  winter  for  the  moose  and  other  herbivorous  ani- 
miils  when  ground  plants  are  covered  with  snow.  The  moose  is  able  to 
eat  branches  as  thick  as  a  man's  thumb.  The  principal  food  element  in 
the  twigs  is  the  mucilaginous  inner  bark.  It  is  this  which  gives  the  tree 
its  name  slippery  elm.  The  value  of  the  bark  as  a  food  has  been  ques- 
tioned. It  is  agreeable  to  the  taste  of  both  man  and  beast,  but  it  is 
claimed  that  a  human  being  will  starve  to  death  on  it,  though  it  will 
prolong  life  several  days.  The  lower  animals,  however,  seem  able  to 
derive  more  benefit  from  eating  the  bark.  An  incident  of  the  War  of 
1812  appears  to  prove  this.  The  army  under  General  Harrison,  operat- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Erie,  kept  the  horses  of  the  expedition  alive 
by  feeding  them  on  slippery  elm  bark,  stripped  from  the  trees  and  chop- 
ped in  small  bits. 

The  inner  bark  has  long  been  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is 
now  ground  fine  and  is  kept  for  sale  in  drug  stores,  but  formerly  it  was  a 
household  remedy  which  most  families  in  the  country  provided  and  kept 
in  store  along  with  catnip,  mandrake,  sage,  dogwood  blossoms,  and  other 
riu-al  remedies  which  were  depended  upon  to  rout  diseases  in  the  days 
when  physicians  were  few.  The  slippery  elm  bark  was  peeled  from  the 
tree  in  long  strips,  the  rough  outer  layers  were  shaved  off,  leaving  the 
mucilaginous  inner  layer.  That  was  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  It  was  dried  and  put  away  for  use.  When  needed  it  was 
pounded  to  a  pulp,  moistened  with  water,  and  applied  as  a  poultice,  if 
an  external  remedy  was  wanted.  If  a  medicine  was  needed,  a  decoction 
was  drunk  as  tea.  There  is  no  question  that  the  remedy  often  produced 
good  results  when  no  doctor  was  within  reach.  A  well-known  medical 
writer  said  three-quarters  of  a  century  ago  that  the  slippery  elm  tree 
was  worth  its  weight  in  gold. 


392  American  Forest  Trees 

The  range  of  slippery  elm  extends  from  the  lower  St.  Lawrence 
river  through  Canada  to  North  Dakota.  It  is  found  in  Texas  as  far  west 
as  the  San  Antonio  river,  and  its  western  limit  is  generally  from  200 
to  300  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Its  range  extends  south 
nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  not  this  tree's  habit  to  grow  in  thick 
stands,  but  it  occurs  singly  or  in  small  groups  on  the  banks  of  streams 
or  on  rich  hillsides. 

The  average  size  is  scarcely  half  that  of  white  elm.  Few  trees 
exceed  a  height  of  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two.  It  grows  rapidly 
at  first,  but  does  not  live  to  old  age.  The  crown  lacks  the  symmetry 
and  beauty  so  conspicuous  in  white  elm.  The  limbs  follow  no  law 
of  regularity,  but  leave  the  trunk  at  haphazard.  The  fruit  is  matiare 
before  the  leaves  are  half  grown.  The  seeds  have  more  wing  area  than 
those  of  white  elm;  and,  like  those  of  white  elm,  the  wing  surrounds  the 
flat  seed  on  all  its  edges.  The  leaves  are  rough  to  the  touch,  and  when 
crumpled  in  the  hand,  the  crunching  sensation  is  unpleasant. 

Next  to  white  elm,  sHppery  elm  appears  to  be  more  abundant  than 
any  other  member  of  the  group;  but  statistics  do  not  give  the  basis  for 
close  estimates.  The  factories  of  Michigan  use  3,700,000  feet  of  slipper}' 
elm  a  year,  and  44,000,000  of  white  elm.  The  proportion  of  slippery 
to  white  is  larger  in  the  factories  of  Illinois. 

The  uses  are  the  same  as  for  other  elms.  The  wood  is  rated  more 
durable  than  the  others,  but  it  is  not  in  much  demand  for  outdoor  work 
where  resistance  to  decay  is  an  important  consideration.  It  is  some- 
times set  for  fence  posts,  but  the  results  are  scarcely  satisfactor}-, 
particularly  for  round  posts  which  are  largely  sapwood.  Posts  sawed 
from  the  heartwood  of  large  trees  would  do  better.  The  deeper  red  of 
the  heartwood  gives  it  an  advantage  over  the  other  elms  for  furniture 
and  finish  where  natural  colors  are  shown;  but  this  is  not  important 
because  no  elm's  natiu-al  color  stands  for  much  in  the  estimation  of  users 
of  fine  woods.  The  more  common  use  of  slippery  elm  is  for  boxes  and 
cooperage.  Next  to  red  gum,  it  is  employed  in  larger  quantities  for 
cooperage  in  Illinois  than  any  other  wood. 

The  supply  is  rapidly  decreasing.  The  cut  for  lumber  is  the 
chief  drain,  but  a  not  inconsiderable  one  is  the  peeling  of  trees  for  bark. 
This  goes  on  all  over  the  species'  range  and  much  of  it  is  done  by  boys 
with  knives  and  hatchets.  It  is  often  hard  to  find  slippery  elms  within 
miles  of  a  town,  because  all  have  succumbed  to  bark  hunters. 

Cedar  Elm  (Vlmus  crassifolia)  appears  to  bear  ihis  name  because  it  is  often 
found  associated  with  red  cedars  on  the  dry  Umestone  hills  of  Te.xas.  There  is  little 
in  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  tree  to  suggest  the  tall,  tapering  conical  crown  of 
cedar.  There  is  still  less  in  the  wood.  In  some  parts  of  Texas  the  species  is  called 
red  ekn,  on  account  of  the  color  of  the  wood,  while  in  .Arkansas,  which  is  near  the 


American  Forest  Trees  393 

northern  boundary  of  its  range,  it  is  locally  known  as  basket  elm,  because  basket 
makers  find  desirable  qualities  in  its  wood.  It  is  a  species  of  rather  limited  range,  but 
it  is  abundant  in  certain  regions.  It  is  found  as  far  east  as  Sunflower  river,  Mississ- 
ippi, north  into  Arkansas,  west  to  Pecos  river,  Texas,  and  south  into  Mexico.  It  is 
confined  to  three  states,  this  side  the  Rio  Grande.  Trees  on  dry  hills  are  inclined  to 
be  shrubby,  but  in  damp  valleys  where  soil  is  fertile,  specimens  attain  a  height  of 
eighty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three,  but  the  average  is  not  nearly  so  large.  The 
leaves  are  small  but  numerous.  The  flowering  habits  of  this  elm  are  somewhat 
erratic.  The  usual  time  for  bloom  to  appear  is  August,  and  a  month  or  six  weeks 
afterwards  the  small  seeds  are  ready  for  flight;  but  occasionally,  as  if  not  satisfied 
with  its  first  effort,  the  tree  blooms  again  in  October,  and  ripens  a  second  crop  late  in 
the  fall.  The  seeds  are  poorly  supplied  with  wings,  which  are  reduced  to  narrow 
margins  surrounding  the  seed.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  species  is  in 
any  way  handicapped  in  securing  reproduction.  The  small  shoots  are  equipped  with 
flat,  corky  keels,  similar  to  but  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  wing  elm. 

This  tree  is  important  for  the  lumber  it  produces.  It  is  the  common  and  most 
abundant  elm  of  Texas,  and  it  is  found  in  a  large  part  of  that  state.  The  wood  is  the 
vfeakest  of  the  elms,  and  is  likewise  quite  brittle;  but  in  the  region  where  it  is  most 
abundant  it  compares  favorably  with  any  other.  The  best  is  cut  from  the  largest 
trees,  which  grow  in  valleys  where  moisture  is  abundant.  The  growth  found  on  the 
dry  hills  is  of  poor  quality,  and  is  worth  Uttle,  even  for  fuel.  The  highest  develop- 
ment in  Texas,  and  also  the  highest  in  the  species'  range,  is  in  the  valleys  of  Trinity 
and  Guadalupe  rivers.  In  Texas  this  wood  is  employed  in  furniture  factories  as  inside 
frames,  to  be  covered  by  other  woods,  but  it  is  not  employed  as  outside  parts  of 
furniture,  unless  in  very  cheap  kinds.  It  is  suitable  for  drain  boards  and  floors  of 
refrigerators  where  it  is  wet  much  of  the  time.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is 
more  easily  kept  clean  than  most  other  woods.  It  whitens  with  repeated  scrubbings. 
One  of  its  most  common  uses  in  Texas  is  for  wagon  hubs.  Some  wheelwrights  pro- 
nounce it  ne.xt  to  the  best  native  wood  for  that  purpose,  the  first  place  being  accorded 
Osage  orange.  The  tree  is  often  planted  for  shade  along  the  streets  of  Texas  towns, 
and  develops  thick  crowns  and  satisfactory  forms. 

Red  Elm  ( Ulmus  serotina)  is  a  lately  discovered  member  of  the  elm  family.  It 
so  closely  resembles  the  cork  elm  that  it  was  supposed  to  be  of  the  same  species,  and 
the  close  scrutiny  of  a  botanist  was  required  to  discover  that  it  was  a  separate  species. 
Sargent  observed  the  flowers  opening  in  September  while  those  of  cork  ehn  appear  in 
early  spring.  The  seeds  ripen  in  November,  while  cork  elm's  are  ripe  early  in  the 
summer.  The  tree  was  named  red  elm,  the  wood  being  reddish-brown.  That  name 
is  widely  applied  to  slippery  elm,  but  it  is  improbable  that  much  confusion  will  result. 
The  red  elm's  range  is  quite  restricted  and  in  that  area  the  sHppery  elm  is  not  im- 
portant. Red  ehn  occurs  on  limestone  hills  and  river  banks  from  central  Kentucky  to 
northern  Georgia  and  Alabama.  It  attains  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  and  a  diam- 
eter of  two  or  three.  The  leaves  are  from  two  to  four  inches  in  length,  and  one  or  two 
wide,  with  margins  toothed  like  the  other  elms.  The  midrib  is  yellow,  and  in  the 
autumn  the  leaves  change  to  an  orange  yellow  before  falling.  Branches  which  are 
two  or  three  years  old  develop  corky  wings,  two  or  three  in  number. 

It  is  not  known  that  mechanical  tests  of  the  wood  have  been  made  in  a  regu- 
lar way  to  determine  its  physical  properties,  but  superficial  examination  indicates 
that  it  is  hard,  tough,  and  strong,  apparently  about  the  same  as  cork  elm.  Special 
lists  of  uses  for  this  wood  have  not  been  compiled  for  the  reason  that  lumbermen 
and  operators   of   sa^vmills   have  never  distinguished   it   from  other  elms  of  the 


394 


American  Forest  Trees 


region.  Since  it  has  never  been  left  standing  in  districts  where  other  elms  are 
cut,  it  is  evident  that  it  has  been  regularly  put  to  use  for  vehicles,  agricultural 
implements,  boxes,  crates,  and  slack  cooperage,  because  such  articles  have  been 
manufactured  in  the  region.  The  red  elm  has  been  occasionally  planted  as  a 
shade  tree  along  streets  of  towns  in  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama. 


PLANERTREE 


PLANERTREE 

{Planer a  Aqnalica) 

THIS  tree  is  a  first  cousin  of  the  elms,  but  it  is  no  more  an  elm  than 
a  hackberry  is  an  elm.  It  is  a  member  of  the  family  but  is  of  a 
different  genus,  and  it  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus  in  the  known 
world.  There  is  only  one  kind  of  planertree,  with  no  nearer  relatives 
than  the  elms  on  one  side  and  hackberry,  sugarberry,  and  palo  bianco  on 
the  other.  Except  those  kinsfolk,  it  is  alone  on  earth.  The  name  is  in 
honor  of  Johann  Jacob  Planer,  a  German  botanist  whose  efforts  did 
much  for  science  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago.  The  name  of  the  species 
aquatica,  recognizes  the  tree's  habit  of  growing  where  wat-er  is  abundant. 
It  is  a  swamp  species,  or  rather,  it  prefers  situations  subject  to  periodic 
overflow.  It  looks  like  an  elm,  and  that  has  led  people  to  call  it  water 
elm.  That  is  the  name  by  which  it  is  usually  known  in  Florida.  In 
Alabama  it  is  called  the  American  planertree,  which  is  an  unnecessary 
restriction,  since  there  is  no  planertree  except  this  one.  The  Louisiana 
French  gave  it  the  name  plene,  and  the  abridgement  of  its  name  is  yet 
heard  in  that  state.  In  North  Carolina  it  has  acquired  the  name  syca- 
more, but  without  good  reason.  It  does  not  look  in  the  least  like 
sycamore. 

It  has  the  leaf  of  an  elm,  and  it  resembles  that  tree  in  bark,  and 
somewhat  in  general  form.  The  layman  detects  the  first  important 
difference  when  he  examines  the  seeds.  Those  of  the  elms  have  wings, 
but  the  planertree's  arc  without  those  appendages,  and  they  would  be 
useless  if  it  had  them,  unless  they  were  as  large  as  the  parachute  of  the 
basswood  seed.  The  planertree  bears  a  sort  of  nut,  a  third  of  an  inch 
long,  and  too  heavy  to  be  transported  far  on  the  ordinary  membranous 
wings  of  tree  seeds.  Water  is  doubtless  the  principal  agent  in  carrying 
the  seeds  from  place  to  place.  Probably  few  of  them  are  transported  far, 
because  the  water  about  the  trees  is  generally  stagnant;  and,  besides, 
the  species  does  not  seem  to  be  extending  its  range  or  increasing  in  num- 
bers. 

The  planertree  has  a  history.  If  the  terms  which  the  Roman 
historian  Tacitus  applied  to  people,  could  be  applied  to  trees,  it  might 
be  said  of  this  species,  as  he  said  of  certain  tribes:  "The  cowards  fly  the 
farthest  and  are  the  last  survivors."  The  planertree  is  now  found  only 
in  certain  southern  swamps,  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida,  and  west  to 
Missouri  and  Texas.  In  former  periods,  as  is  shown  by  the  records  of 
geology,  there  were  several  species,  and  they  had  a  wide  range  over 
portions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.    They  appear  to  have  been  a  strong 


398  American  Forest  Trees 

group  of  trees,  able  to  hold  their  ground  with  the  best  inhabitants  of 
the  forest.  They  were  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  far  north  in 
Alaska.  They  were  in  Europe  also,  or  were  represented  there  by  some 
very  similar  species. 

For  some  reason  which  is  not  definitely  known,  they  lost  out  when 
competition  with  other  trees  became  keen,  and  in  the  course  of  long 
periods  of  time  they  disappeared  from  their  former  ranges  in  the  North 
and  West.  They  took  to  the  swamps,  just  as  the  tribes  of  which  Tacitus 
spoke,  took  to  the  morasses  when  they  could  no  longer  face  their  enemies 
on  open  ground.  It  was  a  far  cry  from  Alaska  to  the  Chattahoochee 
swamps  in  Florida,  yet  that  was  where  A.  H.  Curtis  and  Charles  Mohr 
went  to  procure  typical  planertree  specimens  for  the  tests  which 
Sargent  made  of  American  woods. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  tree  species  which  have  lost  out  in 
competition  for  ground,  have  been  those  which  were  at  some  decided 
disadvantage  in  the  matter  of  getting  their  seeds  properly  scattered  and 
planted.  The  case  has  not  been  proved,  because  there  are  as  many  facts 
and  as  much  argument  against  that  hypothesis  as  for  it.  The  bigtrees 
of  California  are  a  noted  example  of  a  species  which  lost  out  and  retreated 
to  a  comer,  yet  their  seeds  fly  like  birds.  Plainly,  something  besides 
winged  seeds  is  needed  to  keep  the  species  in  the  fight.  However,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  see  that  the  planertree,  with  wingless  seeds  and  of  so 
little  use  as  food  that  no  bird  or  rodent  will  carry  them  or  bury  them,  has 
been  much  handicapped  in  the  long  contest  which  has  crowded  it  from 
the  arctic  circle  to  the  cotton  belt. 

It  has  the  habits  of  the  subdued  and  conquered  tree.  It  has  adapt- 
ed itself  to  swamps  where  few  species  can  grow,  and  where  competition 
for  light  and  room  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Yet,  even  there,  it  is  con- 
tent to  take  the  leavings  of  more  ambitious  species.  The  crowns  make 
little  effort  to  rise  up  to  the  light,  for  which  many  other  trees  battle 
during  their  whole  existence.  The  planertree's  low,  broad  top  of  con- 
torted branches  places  it  perpetually  in  the  shade  of  any  other  trees 
which  overtop  it. 

The  wood  of  the  planertree  is  lighter  in  weight,  poorer  in  fuel  value, 
weaker,  and  more  brittle  than  the  poorest  of  the  elms.  The  annual  ring 
lacks  the  rows  of  large  open  pores  common  in  all  the  elms,  but  it  has 
many  small  pores  scattered  through  the  whole  year's  growth.  It  is  not 
easy  to  note  a  difference  between  the  springwood  and  that  which  grows 
later.  The  wood  is  soft,  light  bro%vn  in  color,  and  the  nearly  white  sap- 
wood  is  thick.  It  is  often,  perhaps  generally,  a  tree  of  fairly  rapid 
growth,  and  since  it  does  not  reach  large  size,  it  is  probably  short-lived, 
but  exact  information  along  that  line  is  lacking  . 


American  Forest  Trees  399 

The  tallest  trees  seldom  exceed  a  height  of  forty  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  two.  It  is  evident  that  a  tree  of  that  size  and  form  does  not  tempt  the 
lumberman  to  much  exertion  to  procure  it.  An  examination  of  reports 
of  sawmill  operations  and  of  the  utilization  of  woods  by  shops  and 
factories  in  the  southern  states  has  failed  to  find  a  single  instance  where 
the  planertree  has  been  reported  in  use  for  any  purpose  whatever. 
Doubtless,  trees  are  sometimes  cut  and  the  lumber  gets  into  the  market, 
but  not  under  its  own  name.  The  species  is  interesting  for  reasons  other 
than  that  it  ever  has  had  or  ever  can  have  a  place  in  the  country's 
lumber  industry. 

Wing  Elm  {Ulmiis  alala),  which  is  the  smallest  of  the  elms,  is  plentifully 
supplied  with  names,  but  in  most  parts  of  its  range  it  is  known  as  wing  or  winged  elm. 
It  is  also  called  wahoo  or  wahoo  elm,  and  the  West  A'riginians  have  named  it  witch 
elm;  the  North  Carolinans  refer  to  it  often  as  simply  elm;  from  Florida  to  Texas  some 
call  it  cork  elm;  in  Alabama  it  is  water  elm;  in  Arkansas  mountain  elm;  while  in 
other  regions  it  is  corky  elm,  small-leaf  elm,  and  red  elm.  Some  of  these  names 
are  self-explanatory.  Wing  elm  does  not  relate  to  a  winged  seed,  but  to  winged 
twigs.  That  characteristic  of  the  tree  is  very  prominent.  The  wings  consist  of 
flattened  keels  along  opposite  sides  of  the  branches.  .\  twig  no  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  may  be  decorated  wiih  wings  half  an  inch  or 
more  wide,  making  the  twig  four  or  five  times  as  wide  as  it  is  thick.  As  the  twig 
enlarges,  the  wings  do  not  broaden  in  proportion.  The  lowest  branches  and  those 
nearest  the  trunk  are  most  generously  furnished  with  wings.  They  appear  to  be 
entirely  ornamental,  for  it  is  not  known  that  they  serve  any  useful  purpose.  The 
growth  is  different  from  those  which  give  cork  elm  its  name.  The  latter  occur  on 
the  large  branches,  often  in  the  form  of  isolated  protuberances,  but  the  wings  are 
fairly  continuous  for  a  foot  or  more,  except  that  they  terminate  abruptly  at  the 
nodes,  but  recommence  immediately  after.  Branches  less  than  a  year  old  seldom 
have  wings.  The  name  wahoo  appears  to  have  lost  its  etymology  if  it  ever 
had  any.  Dictionaries  tell  what  it  means,  but  they  shy  at  its  origin.  It  is  a 
southern  word  which  is  applied  to  this  elm,  and  also  to  other  trees,  and  occasionally  it 
means  a  fish  instead  of  a  tree.  Some  would  trace  it  to  the  cry  of  an  owl,  others  to  a 
name  in  Gulliver's  Travels,  with  a  slight  change  in  spelling. 

Wing  elm  at  its  best  is  about  fifty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter;  but  much  of 
the  stand  is  small.  The  best  occurs  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  range  extends 
from  Texas  to  Virginia,  south  to  Florida,  and  north  to  Illinois.  In  Texas  it  is  a  fairly 
important  wood  in  furniture  factories,  the  annual  supply  being  about  a  million  feet. 
It  is  used  by  turners  for  table  legs.  In  an  investigation  of  the  uses  of  the  wood,  the 
same  difficulty  is  encountered  that  makes  difficult  a  study  of  the  uses  of  all  the  elms — 
conflict  and  uncertainty  of  names.  There  are  few  regions  in  the  hardwood  areas  of 
this  country  which  produce  one  elm  and  no  more;  and  after  all  practical  means  of 
identification  are  resorted  to,  there  is  often  doubt  and  uncertainty  concerning  the 
exact  species  of  elm  lumber  found  in  use.  Fortunately,  it  generally  makes  little 
difference,  because  anyone  of  them  is  good  enough  for  ordinary  use.  Wing  elm  is 
extensively  planted  for  shade  along  the  streets  of  towns  in  the  lower  Mississippi 
valley,  but  more  frequently  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley.  When  the  trees  grow  in 
the  open  they  develop  broad  crowns,  and  the  branches,  even  of  comparatively  small 
trees,  are  long  enough  to  reach  well  over  the  sidewalks,  and  cast  satisfactory  shade. 


400  American  Forest  Trees 

The  dark-colored  winged  twigs  add  much  to  the  ornamental  vahie  of  the  street  trees. 

Fremontia  (h'remotitodendron  californicum)  is  not  botanically  in  the  elm 
family,  but  it  is  popularly  known  as  slippery  elm  in  the  region  where  it  occurs,  and  for 
that  reason  it  is  here  given  place  among  the  elms.  It  is  known  also  as  leatherwood. 
It  is  a  California  species,  ranging  among  the  lower  mountains  and  higher  foothills  in 
dry,  gravelly  soils,  from  the  Me.xican  boundary  five  hundred  miles  northward  in  the 
state.  The  mucilaginous  inner  bark  tastes  like  that  of  the  true  sHppery  elm.  The 
shape  of  the  leaf  much  more  resembles  sycamore  than  elm ;  and  it  is  an  evergreen.  It 
bears  a  bright  yellow,  rosehke  flower,  and  the  seeds  are  small,  reddish-brown.  The 
wood  is  fine  grained,  clear  reddish-brown,  with  thick,  whitish  sapwood.  It  is  very 
soft.  The  tree  attains  its  largest  size  among  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  but  even  there  it  is  too  small  to  have  much  economic  value,  seldom 
exceeding  thirty  feet  in  height  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  Its  most  important  use  is  as 
a  forage  plant  for  cattle  and  sheep.  In  that  particular  it  resembles  slippery  elm  in 
northern  woods.  The  tree  is  occasionally  planted  in  the  eastern  states  and  in 
Europe  for  ornament.     In  its  native  range  it  grows  slowly. 


HACKBERRY 


HACKBERRY 

(Ccliis  Occidentalis) 

HACKBERRY  is  a  common  name  for  this  tree  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
its  range,  but  it  has  other  names.  It  is  sometimes  confused  with 
sugarberry  {Celtis  mississippiensis).  They  call  it  nettle  tree  in  Rhode 
Island,  Massachusetts,  Delaware,  and  Michigan,  and  in  Tennessee  it  is 
known  as  American  nettle-tree.  In  Vermont  it  is  hoop  ash ;  in  Rhode 
Island  one-berry;  hack-tree  in  Minnesota,  and  juniper  tree  in  New 
Jersey. 

The  name  hackberry  is  not  of  American  origin.  It  dates  far  back 
in  the  languages  of  western  Europe  and  is  believed  to  have  the  same 
origin  as  the  word  haw,  which,  in  its  turn  meant  hedge.  If  that 
etymology  is  correct,  the  word  really  means  hedge  berry,  which  is  not  an 
inappropriate  name  for  the  tree.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
small  bird  cherry  in  Europe.  The  new  Jersey  name  juniper-tree  is  in 
recognition  of  the  resemblance  of  the  berries  to  those  of  red  cedar  or  red 
juniper.     No  reason  has  been  assigned  for  the  name  nettle-tree. 

Its  range  covers  about  2,000,000  square  miles  in  the  United 
States  besides  part  of  Canada.  It  grows  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  coast 
of  New  England  to  the  tide  water  of  the  Pacific  on  Puget  sound;  in 
southern  Florida  and  in  Texas.  It  is  not  found  in  pure  stands,  but 
often  as  single  trees  far  apart.  This  is  the  case  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  United  States  in  particular  where  probably  not  more  than  one 
tree  might  be  found  in  a  whole  county.  Frequently  the  people  in  the 
neighborhood  do  not  know  what  the  tree  is,  and  suppose  it  is  the  last 
representative  on  earth  of  some  disappearing  species. 

It  is  far  from  being  a  disappearing  tree.  Not  only  is  it  widely 
dispersed  over  the  United  States,  but  related  species  are  scattered 
through  many  countries  of  the  old  world,  from  Denmark  to  India. 
There  are  said  to  be  between  fifty  and  sixty  species,  only  two  of  which 
are  in  the  United  States. 

It  has  been  claimed  by  scholars  that  the  lotus  referred  to  by  ancient 
writers  was  the  hackberry.  It  was  reputed  to  cause  forgetfulness  when 
eaten,  but  the  claim  was  fictitious,  for  the  fruit  does  not  produce  that 
effect.  It  is  not  now  regarded  as  human  food.  Tennyson  deals  with 
the  fiction  very  beautifully  in  the  poem  "Lotus  Eaters,"  but  he  took 
liberties  with  botany  when  he  represented  fruit  and  flowers  on  the  same 
branch;  for,  though  the  berries  hang  several  months,  they  drop  before 
the  next  season's  flowers  appear. 

The  hackberry  belongs  to  the  elm  family,  being  of  the  same  relation 


404  American  Forest  Trees 

as  the  planertree.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  elm,  but  are  more 
sharply  pointed.  The  fruit  is  usually  classed  as  a  berry.  It  ripens  in 
September  and  October,  but  remains  on  the  tree  several  months,  becom- 
ing dry.  It  is  about  one-fourth  inch  long,  dark  pvu-ple,  with  a  tough, 
thick  skin,  and  with  flesh  dark  orange.  Most  of  the  pale  brown  seeds  are 
eaten  by  birds. 

The  tree  varies  greatly  in  size.  In  some  remote  comers  of  its 
immense  range  it  is  little  more  than  a  shrub,  while  at  its  best  it  may 
attain  a  height  of  100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  or  four.  Its  average 
size  is  about  that  of  slippery  elm.  The  bark  varies  as  much  in  appear- 
ance as  the  tree  in  size.  Sometimes  it  has  the  smooth  surface  and  pale 
bluish-green  appearance  that  suggest  the  bark  of  beech;  again  it  is 
darker  and  rougher,  like  the  elm.  It  frequently  exhibits  the  harsh 
warty  bark  which  is  peculiar  to  the  hackberry,  and  when  present  it  is  a 
pretty  safe  means  of  identification.  The  warts  may  be  conical,  oblong, 
or  sharp-pointed,  and  probably  an  inch  in  height.  When  closely 
examined,  most  of  them  are  found  to  consist  of  parallel  strata  of  bark 
which  may  usually  be  pulled  off  without  much  difficulty.  The  warts 
are  a  decided  disadvantage  to  the  tree  in  some  of  the  low  swampy 
districts  of  Louisiana  where  Spanish  moss  is  a  pest.  This  moss  (which  is 
not  a  true  moss),  is  propagated  principally  by  tufts  and  strands  which 
are  carried  by  wind  until  they  find  anchorage  among  the  branches  of 
trees  where  they  increase  and  multiply  at  a  rapid  rate  until  they  finally 
smother  or  break  down  the  unfortunate  tree  which  supplied  a  lodging 
place.  The  hackberry's  warts  catch  and  hold  every  flying  strand  of 
moss  that  touches  them,  and  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands  of  pounds  of 
it  may  accumulate  on  a  single  tree.  The  grayish-green  color  of  the  moss 
often  exactly  matches  the  hue  of  the  tree's  bark. 

The  reported  annual  cut  of  hackberry  lumber  in  the  United  States 
is  less  than  5,000,000  feet.  That  can  be  only  a  fraction  of  the  total  out- 
put. Few  mills  report  it  separately,  but  list  it  as  ash.  The  wood 
looks  more  like  ash  than  elm.  It  is  heavy,  but  only  moderately  hard 
and  strong.  Its  color  is  more  yellowish  than  ash,  but  the  annual  rings 
of  growth  resemble  that  wood.  The  sapwood  is  thick,  and  growth  is 
rapid  where  conditions  are  favorable. 

It  is  doubltess  used  by  industries  in  thirty  states  or  more,  but 
comparatively  few  factories  report  it.  In  Texas  it  is  listed  in  the  box 
and  crate  industry.  In  Louisiana  it  rises  to  more  importance,  for  that 
is  the  region  where  the  tree  attains  its  best.  Slack  coopers  make  kegs, 
tubs,  and  barrels  of  it;  vehicle  manufacturers  convert  it  into  parts  of 
buggy  tops  and  the  running  gears  of  wagons;  it  serves  for  furniture  and 
interior  finish;  and  it  takes  the  place  of  ash  for  hoe  handles  and  parts  of 


American  Forest  Trees  405 

agricultural  implements.  The  uses  are  nearly  the  same  in  Mississippi, 
but  it  is  used  there  for  rustic  seats  and  other  outdoor  furniture.  In 
Missouri  it  is  found  suitable  for  cart  axles,  saddle  trees,  stitching  horse 
jaws,  and  wagon  beds.  In  Arkansas  it  goes  with  ash  into  flooring,  and 
interior  finish  for  houses.  Illinois  builders  work  it  into  fixtiures  for  stores. 
In  Michigan  it  serves  the  same  purposes  as  in  Texas,  baskets,  boxes,  and 
crates.  These  examples  doubtless  are  representative  of  its  uses  wher- 
ever the  tree  is  found  in  commercial  quantities.  The  word  is  not 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  is  also  liable  to  attack  by  boriiig 
insects  if  logs  are  allowed  to  retain  their  bark. 

The  hackberry  has  been  planted  to  a  small  extent  as  a  street  tree 
in  the  southern  towns,  but  it  is  not  as  popular  as  the  elms  and  oaks.  It 
will  never  occupy  a  more  important  position  in  the  country's  lumber 
industry  than  it  holds  at  present.  It  is  a  tree  which,  for  some  reason, 
inspires  little  enthusiasm  in  anybody;  but  nature  takes  care  of  it  fairly 
well,  and  the  small  sweet  drupes  which  it  bears  are  a  guarantee  that  the 
species  will  not  want  for  seed  carriers  as  long  as  birds  continue  to  have 
access  to  its  branches  in  winter. 

SuGARBERRY  {Celtis  mississippiensis)  is  frequently  mistaken  for 
hackberry  even  by  persons  who  ought  to  be  able  to  distinguish  them. 
Botanists  formerly  confused  the  two,  and  probably  some  insist  still  that 
sugarberry  is  only  a  variety  of  hackberry.  The  leaves  generally  have 
smooth  margins,  and  that  would  differentiate  the  tree  from  the  hack- 
berry were  it  not  that  sometimes  the  sugarberry  has  serrate  leaves.  The 
drupes  are  bright  orange  red  and  are  usually  smaller  than  the  purple 
fruit  of  hackberry.  As  for  the  wood  of  the  two  species,  it  is  not  easy 
to  tell  one  from  the  other.  The  sugarberry's  range  is  not  one-third  as 
extensive  as  hackberry 's,  but  covers  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
square  miles  in  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  United  States. 
Its  northern  limit  is  in  Illinois  and  Indiana  where  it  occupies  rich 
bottom  lands  and  the  banks  of  streams.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  in 
the  lower  Ohio  river  basin,  grows  southward  into  Florida  and  west 
into  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Missoiu-i.  It  crosses  the  Rio  Grande 
into  Mexico,  appearing  to  outstrip  the  hackberry  in  that  direction. 
It  outstrips  it  in  another  direction  also,  for  it  is  found  in  the  Ber- 
muda islands.  The  French  of  Louisiana  called  it  bois  inconnu,  or  the 
unknown  wood. 

This  tree  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  run  into  varieties,  and 
cultivation  would  probably  develop  the  tendency.  The  differences 
between  the  species  and  the  varieties  are  plain  enough  to  the  systematic 
botanist,  but  are  such  that  the  lumberman  or  other  ordinary  observer 
would   scarcely   notice    them.     The   variety   which   has   been   named 


406 


American  Forest  Trees 


Cdlis  mississippiensis  reticulata,  but  without  any  English  name  except 
sugarberry,  is  a  tree  forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  covered  with  blue-gray 
bark,  very  rough.  It  ranges  from  Dallas,  Texas,  to  the  Rio  Grande  and 
westward  into  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Utah,  and  into  southern 
California  and  Lower  California.  In  eastern  Texas  it  is  found  on  dry 
limestone  hills,  but  westward  only  in  mountain  canyons  in  the  vicinity  of 
water.  In  the  southern  part  of  Texas  this  tree  is  usually  known  as  palo 
bianco,  but  those  who  apply  that  name  have  no  idea  that  it  is  a  variety 
of  sugarberry  but  suppose  it  is  a  tree  peculiar  to  their  region.  In 
Cameroh  and  Hidalgo  counties,  Texas,  either  because  an  extra  good 
quality  grows  there,  or  because  some  opinion  exists  in  its  favor,  it  is 
liked  for  wagon  material,  and  occasionally  is  tiuTied  for  table  legs  and 
other  parts  of  furniture.  It  is  quite  common  in  that  part  of  Texas  as 
an  ornamental  tree  in  yards  and  along  streets  of  small  towns.  The  white- 
ness of  the  bark  is  the  most  striking  feature. 


WHITE  ASH 


WHITE   ASH 

{Fraxinus  Americana) 

THIS  tree  is  generally  called  white  or  gray  ash,  or  simply  ash. 
American  ash  is  a  translation  of  its  botanical  name  and  is  not  often 
used  in  business  transactions  in  this  country.  In  some  parts  of  the 
South  the  term  cane  ash  is  occasionally  employed,  but  there  seems  to  be 
no  agreement  among  those  who  use  the  name  as  to  what  it  means.  This 
is  the  common  ash  in  the  lumber  trade.  There  are  more  than  a  dozen 
species  in  the  United  States,  but  white  ash  goes  to  market  in  larger 
amounts  than  all  others  together.  This  is  known  in  a  general  way,  but 
exact  figures  cannot  be  given,  because  statistics  of  the  cut  of  different 
species  of  ash  are  not  kept  separate. 

The  range  of  this  tree  covers  at  least  a  million  square  miles,  and  all 
or  part  of  every  state  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  west  of  it  from 
Nebraska  to  Texas.  It  is  reported  cut  for  lumber  in  thirty  states.  The 
various  ashes  are  lumbered  in  thirty-nine  states.  Ash  does  not  occur  in 
pure  stands  but  is  scattered  in  forests  of  other  species,  sometimes 
growing  in  small  clumps.  It  is  difficult  to  name  an  average  size  for 
the  tree,  because  climate  and  soil  control  the  growth  over  a  large  area 
where  conditions  vary.  Trees  120  feet  high  and  six  feet  in  diameter  are 
said  to  have  stood  in  the  primeval  forests  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley;  but 
logs  four  feet  through  are  seldom  seen  now.  Trees  seventy  or  eighty 
feet  high  and  three  in  diameter  are  above  the  average  in  any  region 
where  this  tree  is  now  lumbered.  Some  of  the  old  planted  trees  of  New 
England  are  five  or  six  feet  through,  and  are  finely  proportioned,  but 
growing  as  they  do  in  the  open,  they  have  larger  crowns  than  are  found 
in  forest  trees. 

All  species  of  ash  have  compound  leaves,  and  those  of  white  ash  are 
from  eight  to  twelve  inches  long.  The  under  sides  of  the  leaflets  are 
white,  and  some  persons  have  this  fact  in  mind  when  they  call  the  species 
white  ash,  while  others  refer  to  the  bark,  and  still  others  to  the  wood.  It 
is  a  characteristic  of  the  tree  that  most  of  the  leaves  grow  near  the  ends 
of  the  limbs.  For  that  reason  the  crown  appears  cjpen  when  viewed  from 
below,  and  the  larger  limbs  and  branches  are  naked.  The  leaves  demand 
light,  and  they  arrange  themselves  on  the  extremities  of  the  limbs  to  get 
it.  When  the  tree  is  crowded,  it  sheds  its  lower  limbs  and  its  crown  rises 
rapidly  until  it  reaches  abundance  of  light.  This  produces  long  trunks  in 
forests. 

The  boles  are  often  not  quite  straight,  but  have  several  slight 
crooks,  yet  keep  close  to  a  general  perpendicular  line.     That  form  is  due 


410  American  Forest  Trees 

to  a  peculiarity  of  growth.  The  leading  shoot  of  a  growing  ash  has  more 
than  one  terminal  bud.  If  a  side  bud  pushes  ahead,  the  stem  leans  a 
little  in  that  direction;  next,  a  bud  on  the  other  side  may  gain  the  as- 
cendancy, producing  a  slight  lean  for  a  few  years  in  that  direction;  or  two 
side  buds  may  develop  simultaneously,  causing  a  forked  trunk.  Ma- 
ture trees  often  carry  the  history  of  these  peculiarities  of  growth. 

The  seeds  of  white  ash  are  equipped  for  moderate  flight.  The 
wing  is  large,  but  the  seed  attached  to  the  end  of  it  is  heavy  enough 
to  give  it  a  sharp  tilt  downward  when  it  begins  its  flight  through  the  air, 
and  it  generally  shoots  at  a  steep  angle  toward  the  ground.  It  is  not 
apt  to  whirl  through  the  air  with  a  gliding  motion  like  a  maple  seed. 
Consequently,  ash  seeds  are  not  great  travelers.  They  are  dispersed 
with  economy,  however,  for  all  do  not  come  down  at  once,  but  many 
hang  on  the  tree  for  months,  and  a  few  go  with  every  strong  wind,  thus 
getting  themselves  scattered  in  every  direction.  Then-  power  of  germi- 
nation is  low,  and  only  about  forty  per  cent  of  seeds  are  fertile.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  pistillate  and  staminate  flowers  do  not  grow  on  the 
same  tree,  and  fertilization  is  imperfect. 

The  importance  of  ash  in  the  industries  of  the  country  does  not 
depend  on  the  quantity  but  the  quality  of  the  wood.  Although  the 
various  species  are  produced  in  thirty-nine  states,  as  shown  by  mill 
statistics,  the  total  yield  is  less  than  250,000,000  feet  a  year.  That  is 
exceeded  by  several  woods,  among  them  hickory,  elm,  beech,  basswood, 
chestnut,  and  even  larch. 

The  wood  of  ash  which  has  grown  rapidly  is  generally  considered 
superior  to  that  of  slow  growth.  The  reason  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
trees  of  slow  growth  do  most  of  their  growing  early  in  the  season, and  the 
wood  is  porous;  but  trees  of  rapid  growth  laysummerwood  on  abundant- 
ly, and  it  is  dense.  Few  species  show  a  sharper  line  between  spring  and 
summerwood  than  ash,  for  which  reason  the  annual  rings  are  clear-cut 
and  distinct.  What  figure  ash  has  is  produced  by  the  growth  rings,  and 
not  by  medullary  rays.  Quarter-sawing  brings  out  no  additional  beauty. 
Slight  crooks  in  many  logs  produce  a  moderate  cross  grain  in  lumber, 
which  gives  to  finished  ash  its  characteristic  figure  or  grain.  When 
straight-grained  wood  is  wanted,  as  when  it  is  for  tool  handles  and  oars, 
logs  without  crooks  are  selected. 

The  wood  of  white  ash  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  elastic,  but  rather 
brittle.  It  lacks  the  toughness  of  hickory.  The  medullary  rays  are 
numerous,  but  small  and  obscure.  The  color  is  brown,  the  sapwood 
much  lighter,  often  nearly  white.  It  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  Notwithstanding  its  name,  the  wood  rates  low  in  ash,  and  its  fuel 
value  is  under  that  of  white  oak.     The  states  which  produce  the  largest 


American  Forest  Trees  411 

yearly  cut  of  this  species  are,  ranging  downward  in  the  order  named: 
Arkansas,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Tennessee. 

The  uses  of  white  ash  are  so  numerous  that  they  can  be  presented 
only  in  classes.  It  goes  into  almost  every  wood-using  industry,  but  in 
different  sections  of  country  certain  uses  lead.  Thus  in  Illinois  the  mak- 
ers of  butter  tabs  take  more  of  it  than  any  other  industry;  in  Michigan 
automobiles  lead,  and  in  Arkansas  the  handle  factories  are  largest 
buyers;  in  Louisiana  boat  oars  consume  most;  in  Alabama  and  Missouri 
car  construction  is  in  the  lead ;  in  Texas  boxes  and  crates ;  in  North 
Carolina  wagons;  in  Kentucky  handles;  in  Maryland  musical  instru- 
ments; and  in  Massachusetts  fiUTiiture.  The  utilization  of  ash  in  these 
states,  scattered  over  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  indicates 
fairly  well  the  wood's  most  important  lines  of  usefulness.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  is  made  into  flooring  and  interior  finish.  It  is 
classed  among  sanitary  woods,  that  is,  it  does  not  stain  or  taint  food 
products  by  contact. 

The  total  quantity  of  merchantable  white  ash  in  the  country  is 
not  known,  but  there  is  still  enough  to  meet  demand,  and  the 
extent  of  the  tree's  range  makes  supplies  convenient  in  nearly  all  manu- 
facturing states.  The  species  grows  rather  rapidly,  and  trees  a  hundred 
or  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  old  yield  logs  of  good  size. 

Te.xas  Ash  {Fraxinus  iexensis)  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  a 
variety  of  white  ash,  while  others,  including  Sudworth  and  Sargent, 
consider  it  a  distinct  species.  It  is  often  called  mountain  ash  where  it 
occurs  among  the  mountains  of  western  Texas.  Its  range  lies  wholly  in 
that  state,  and  extends  from  the  vicinity  of  Dallas  to  the  valley  of  Devil's 
river.  The  compound  leaves  are  smaller  than  those  of  white  ash,  and 
are  usually  composed  of  five  leaflets.  The  winged  seeds  ripen  in  May, 
and  are  an  inch  or  less  in  length.  The  largest  trees  are  fifty  feet  high 
and  two  or  three  in  diameter;  but  generally  the  trees  are  much  smaller. 
The  wood  is  strong,  heavy,  and  hard.  The  annual  rings  are  marked  by 
one  or  more  rows  of  open  ducts,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  inconspicu- 
ous. The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  the  sapwood  lighter.  This  ash  is 
employed  within  its  range  for  various  purposes,  but  it  is  not  of  sufficient 
abundance  to  constitute  an  important  commodity.  In  market  it  is  not 
distinguished  from  white  ash. 

Gregg  Ash  {Fraxinus  greggii)  has  some  peculiarities  which  make 
it  worthy  of  mention  as  one  of  the  minor  species.  Its  range  is  in  the 
dry  mountains  of  western  Texas  where  a  number  of  ashes  seem  to  have 
put  in  an  appearance  as  members  of  the  thinly-peopled  vegetable  king- 
dom of  that  region.  The  compound  leaves  of  Gregg  ash  are  seldom 
three  inches  long,  and  the  leaflets  are  often  half  an  inch  long  and  less 


412  American  Forest  Trees 

than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide.  The  petioles  are  \vinged  like  the  twigs 
of  wing  elm.  The  undersides  of  the  leaves  have  small  black  dots.  The 
winged  seeds  are  as  proportionately  small  as  the  leaves.  The  flowers 
have  not  been  described  by  botanists,  for  the  species  is  not  well  known. 
The  largest  trees  are  scarcely  twenty-five  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in 
diameter.  More  frequently  they  are  shrubs  from  four  to  twelve  feet  tall. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  brown  in  color  and  of  slow  growth. 

Dwarf  Ash  (Fraxinus  anomala)  might  be  mistaken  for  some  other 
species  were  its  telltale  winged  seeds  missing.  It  has  lost  the  leaflets 
from  its  compound  leaf,  and  a  single  one  remains.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, a  stem  bearing  three  leaflets  is  found.  The  seeds  are  equipped 
with  wide,  oblong  wings.  It  is  a  desert  species,  and  the  desolate  sur- 
roundings of  its  habitat  explain  why  nature  has  dispensed  with  as  much 
foliage  as  possible.  It  is  found  in  southwestern  Colorado,  in  southern 
Utah,  and  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Charleston  mountains  in  southern 
Nevada.  Trees  are  small  and  the  wood  is  not  of  much  use  for  other  than 
fuel,  but  a  few  small  ranch  timbers  are  made  of  it  where  other  kinds  are 
scarce.  Trunks  are  usually  not  more  than  six  or  seven  inches  in  diam- 
eter.    The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  light  brown  in  color. 

Fringe  Ash  {Fraxinus  cuspidala)  has  some  difficulty  in  proving  tfiat  it  is 
entitled  to  be  called  a  tree  in  the  United  States,  though  southward  in  Mexico  its  right 
to  that  title  is  unquestioned.  It  is  very  small  where  its  range  extends  over  the  dry 
ridges  and  rocky  slopes  of  southwestern  Texas  and  southern  New  Mexico  and  .\rizona. 
Its  compound  leaves  are  five  or  seven  inches  long,  and  the  leaflets  which  number  from 
three  to  seven  have  long,  slender  tips.  The  trowel-shaped  fruit  is  about  one  inch  long. 
The  wood  resembles  white  ash,  but  trunks  of  considerable  size  are  not  found.  The 
name  refers  to  the  flowers,  and  they  give  this  small  tree  its  value  for  ornamental 
purposes.     The  flowers  appear  in  .\pril  and  are  extremely  fragrant. 


BLACK  ASH 


i.  -^  ■ 

B.'-'^Hllf'  .: 

r^^BS^H          ^^Sl 

^^HmB,         '^P^B 

R^'^l^ 

^MH.             ^^^^ 

"^'  ■  j^Vi  '     '■    ■-^'-''■'  -"'•'""       '--^  ■'*' 

k  -^^J^^^^^Ni^B' ' '•                          ^^^^^^1 

MHK     ^>';)^^^H 

^^ 'I^^^^Hh^^         9:d£^^^^^^^^l 

-    '    '  wt^-^^-'  ' 

pimr       '^''■^•'  '  '^''^■- 

^          #1^^ ',  '!/■    ^^ 

Black  Ash 

BLACK  ASH 

(Fraxinus  Nigra) 

WHEN  George  Washington  was  a  surveyor  locating  land  on  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Potomac  river,  and  westward  on  the  Kanawha 
and  Ohio  rivers,  he  always  spoke  of  this  ash  as  "hoop  tree"  when  he 
marked  it  with  two  or  with  three  "hacks,"  depending  upon  whether 
it  designated  a  "comer"  or  a  "line,"  or  a  "pointer"  in  the  system  of 
surveying  then  in  use.  Trees  were  used  then  as  landmarks,  and  were 
duly  recorded  in  the  surveyor's  field  notes,  and  were  described  in  the 
deeds  when  the  title  to  the  land  passed  from  one  party  to  another.  It 
was  not  unusual,  if  subsequent  litigation  came  up,  to  cut  blocks  from 
marked  trees  to  prove  that  such  a  corner  was  at  such  a  place.  The 
"hacks"  or  ax  marks,  were  sometimes  healed  over  and  invisible  at  the 
bark,  but  were  found  deep  in  the  wood.  The  rings  of  growth  covering 
the  ax  marks  afforded  an  admissible  record  of  the  years  that  had  passed 
since  the  survey  was  made.  The  selection  of  the  black  ash  as  a  land- 
mark was  one  of  the  few  instances  in  which  Washington  showed  poor 
judgment;  because  it  is  a  tree  of  short  life,  and  might  be  expected  to  die 
before  a  great  many  years. 

The  name  hoop  ash  is  applied  to  this  tree  yet.  It  has  always  been 
good  material  for  barrel  hoops,  because  it  splits  into  thin  pieces,  and  is 
sufficiently  tough.  It  is  known  as  basket  ash  for  the  same  reason.  The 
New  England  Indians  were  making  fish  baskets  of  it  when  the  first 
white  people  landed  on  those  shores,  and  settlers  speedily  learned  the 
art  from  the  children  of  the  wilderness.  Those  untutored  savages 
knew  little  of  wood  technology,  but  they  were  able  to  take  advantage  of  a 
peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  black  ash  wood,  which  the  white  man's 
microscope  has  revealed  to  him.  The  Indians  doubtless  discovered  it 
accidentally.  The  springwood  in  the  annual  ring  of  black  ash  is  made 
up  of  large  pores,  crowded  so  closely  together  that  there  is  really  very 
little  actual  wood  substance  there.  In  other  woods,  the  springwood  is 
chiefly  air  spaces.  The  result  is,  that  billets  of  black  ash  are  easily 
separated  into  thin  strips,  the  cleavage  following  the  weak  lines  of  spring- 
wood.  A  little  beating  and  bending  causes  the  annual  rings  to  fall  apart. 
In  some  way  the  Indians  found  that  out,  and  utilized  their  knowledge  in 
manufacturing  baskets  in  which  to  carry  fish,  acorns,  hickory  nuts,  and 
other  forest  and  water  commodities. 

The  white  people  extended  the  scope  of  application  to  include 
chairs  and  other  furniture  in  which  splits  are  manipulated.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  Indians  made  a  similar  discovery  with  northern  white  cedar 


416  American  Forest  Trees 

or  arborvitae,  which  separates  into  thin  pieces  by  beating  and  bending. 
Barrel  makers  took  advantage  of  the  splitting  properties  of  black  ash  to 
make  hoops  of  it,  hence  the  name  hoop  ash,  or  hoop  tree  as  Washington 
called  it.     The  name  basket  ash  has  a  similar  origin. 

The  names  swamp  ash  and  water  ash  refer  to  situations  in  which  the 
tree  grows  best.  It  is  one  of  the  thirstiest  inhabitants  of  the  forest.  Its 
aggressive  roots  ramify  through  the  soil  and  drink  up  the  moisture  so 
voraciously  that  if  water  is  not  abundant,  neighboring  trees  and  plants 
may  find  their  roots  robbed,  and  the  functions  of  healthy  growth  will 
be  interfered  with.  This  has  led  to  a  general  belief  that  black  ash  poisons 
trees  that  it  touches.  It  simply  robs  their  roots.  CaroHna  and  Lom- 
bardy  poplars  will  sometimes  do  the  same  thing. 

The  name  black  ash  by  which  this  tree  is  now  known  in  most  regions 
where  it  grows  refers  to  the  color  of  the  large,  prominent,  shiny,  blue- 
black  buds  in  late  winter  and  early  spring ;  to  the  \'ery  dark  green  leaves 
in  summer — which  at  a  distance  resemble  the  foliage  of  post  oak — and, 
to  some  extent,  to  the  dark  brown  color  of  the  heartwood,  though  the 
wood  is  not  always  a  safe  means  of  identification  if  judged  from  super- 
ficial appearance  only.  The  form  of  the  tree  assists  in  identifying  it; 
for  it  is  the  slimmest  of  the  ashes,  in  proportion  to  its  height.  Trunks 
three  feet  through  are  heard  of,  but  few  persons  have  ever  seen  one  much 
over  twenty  inches,  and  many  are  about  done  growing  when  they  are  one 
foot  in  diameter.  Yet  the  trunks  of  such  are  very  tall,  perhaps  seventy 
or  eighty  feet.  Their  appearance  has  been  likened  to  tall,  slender 
columns  of  dark  gray  granite.  They  often  stand  so  straight  that  a 
plummet  line  will  not  reveal  a  deviation  from  the  perpendicular. 

The  tree  has  been  called  elder-leaved  ash.  The  form  of  the  foliage 
has  something  to  do  with  that  name,  but  the  odor  more.  Crush  the 
leaves,  and  they  smell  like  elder.  The  compound  leaves  are  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  inches  long;  the  leaflets  range  from  seven  to  eleven  in  num- 
ber, and  the  side  leaflets  have  no  stalks.  The  leaves  appear  late  in 
spring,  and  they  fall  early  in  autumn.  They  drop  with  the  butternut 
leaves,  and  like  them,  all  at  once.  The  seed  is  winged,  and  the  wing 
forms  a  margin  entirely  round  the  seed. 

The  wood  of  black  ash  is  rather  soft,  moderately  heavy,  tough,  but 
only  moderately  strong,  not  diu-able  in  contact  with  the  soil,  dark  brown 
in  color  with  sapwood  whiter.  The  species  ranges  farther  north  than 
any  other  ash,  and  grows  in  cold  swamps  and  on  the  low  banks  of  streams 
and  lakes  from  Newfoundland  to  Winnipeg,  and  southward  to  Virginia, 
southern  Illinois,  southern  Missouri,  and  Arkansas. 

Black  ash  fills  many  important  places  in  the  country's  wood-using 
industries,  but  the  total  quantity  is  not  large.     In  1910  Michigan  manu- 


American  Forest  Trees  417 

facturers  reported  the  annual  quantity  in  that  state  at  9,110,432  feet, 
and  in  Illinois  the  total  was  9,936,000  feet.  The  uses  for  the  wood  in 
Michigan  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  the  whole  country.  The  re- 
ported uses  were,  auto  seats,  baskets,  boat  finish,  butter  tubs,  candy 
pails,  carriage  seats,  crating,  church  pews,  fish  nets,  office  fixtures, 
flooring,  furniture,  ice  chests,  interior  finish,  jelly  buckets,  kitchen  cabi- 
nets, lard  tubs,  piano  frames,  putty  kegs,  racked  hoops,  spice  kegs,  tin 
plate  boxes,  veneer,  washboards,  and  woven  splint  boxes. 

Black  ash  burls  are  characteristic  excrescences  on  the  trunk.  They 
begin  as  small  lumps  or  knobs  under  the  bark,  and  never  cease  growing 
while  the  tree  lives.  They  may  reach  the  dimensions  of  wash  tubs, 
but  most  do  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  gallon  measure.  The  grain  of  the 
wood  is  exceedingly  distorted  and  involved.  The  biu-ls  are  sliced  or 
sawed  in  veneers  which  are  much  prized  by  cabinet  makers.  Early 
New  Englanders  made  bowls  of  them,  which  seldom  checked  or  split 
during  generations  of  service.  The  burls  are  believed  to  be  due  to  ad- 
ventitious buds ;  that  is,  buds  which  originate  deep  in  the  wood,  but  are 
never  able  to  force  their  way  through  the  bark.  The  internal  structure 
of  the  ash  burl  indicates  that  the  buried  bud  grows,  branches,  and  sends 
shoots  in  various  directions,  but  all  of  them  are  hopelessly  enmeshed  in 
the  wood  substance,  and  never  are  able  to  free  themselves  and  burst 
through  the  bark.     A  constantly  enlarging  excrescence  is  the  result. 

Blue  Ash  (Fraxinus  quadrangulata)  is  named  from  a  blue  dye 
procured  from  the  inner  bark.  The  botanical  name  relates  to  the  square 
shape  of  the  young  twigs,  particularly  the  twigs  of  young  trees,  and  was 
given  by  A.  F.  Michaux  who  found  tlie  species  growing  in  the  South.  It 
reaches  its  best  development  on  the  lower  Wabash  river  in  Indiana  and 
Illinois  and  on  the  Big  Smoky  mountains  in  Tennessee.  Its  northern 
limit  reaches  southern  Michigan,  its  western  is  in  Missouri.  It  is  not 
abundant,  if  found  at  all,  east  of  the  Appalachian  mountains.  Trees  may 
reach  a  height  of  100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three,  but  about  seventy  is 
the  average  height,  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet  or  less.  The  leaves 
resemble  those  of  black  ash  in  form,  but  the  foliage  when  seen  in  mass  is 
yellow-green  instead  of  dark  green  like  that  of  black  ash.  The  seeds 
look  like  those  of  black  ash.  The  tree  bears  perfect  flowers,  and  in  that 
respect  differs  from  most  other  species  of  ash. 

The  wood  is  heavier  than  that  of  any  other  member  of  the  ash 
group,  except  Texas  ash.  It  weighs  about  the  same  as  white  oak,  which 
is  six  pounds  per  cubic  foot  more  than  white  ash  weighs.  In  general 
appearance  the  wood  resembles  white  ash,  but  it  is  usually  considered 
stronger  and  more  springy.  The  trunks  of  young  trees  are  largely  or 
entirely  sapwood.     Sometimes  no  heartwood  is  formed  until  an  age  of 


418 


American  Forest  Trees 


seventy  or  eighty  years  is  reached.  Many  manufacturers  of  ash  tool 
handles  prefer  this  species  to  any  other  ash,  because  of  its  thick,  white 
sapwood.  It  is  often  made  into  handles  for  hoes,  rakes,  shovels,  pitch- 
forks, spades,  and  snaths  for  scythes.  Makers  of  vehicles  draw  liberally 
upon  this  wood  within  its  range,  as  do  furniture  makers  and  the  manu- 
facturers of  flooring.  It  is  regarded  as  harder  than  white  ash,  and 
consequently  better  flooring  material. 

LEaThBrlEaf  Ash  {Fraxinus  velutina)  changes  its  velvety  leaves  to  a  leathery 
condition,  hence  the  conflict  in  the  meanings  of  its  two  names.  Velutina  means  velvet- 
like. The  compound  leaves  are  seldom  si.x  inches  long,  often  not  three,  and  they 
are  made  up  of  from  three  to  nine  leaflets.  The  small  seeds  are  equipped  with  wings. 
The  tree  is  small  and  would  be  without  any  commercial  importance  except  that  it 
grows  in  an  arid  region  where  any  wood  is  welcome.  It  is  made  into  ax,  hammer, 
and  pick  handles,  and  wagon  makers  are  often  glad  to  get  it.  It  is  found  among  the 
mountains  and  canyons  of  western  Texas,  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  southern  Nevada, 
and  southeastern  California,  near  the  shores  of  Owen's  lake.  The  largest  trees  are 
scarcely  forty  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  not  hard  or 
strong,  and  is  of  slow  growth.  The  largest  trunks  are  apt  to  be  hollow.  Sapwpod 
is  comparatively  thick. 

Berlandier  Ash  {Fraxinus  berlandieriana)  may  not  be  entitled  to  a  place 
among  native  species  of  the  United  States.  Some  suppose  it  was  introduced  from 
Mexico  by  early  Spanish  settlers  in  western  Texas.  It  now  grows  wild  there  along 
Nueces  and  Blanco  rivers  where  specimens  thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter  are 
found.  Southward  in  Mexico  it  is  a  popular  street  tree,  and  trunks  reach  six  or  eight 
feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  soft  and  is  used  only  locally  and  in  very  small  quan- 
tities. 


OREGON  ASH 


i-R^^ 

Uffilllf'^r 

^^Hwy^:  WSm 

llffrwii^ 

f' 

Hliilllil^ 

■;.''■■■■'  ^k''-     ^  ^'^'  ^  !■■ 

^■^4mv 

Ka 

Oregon  Ash 

OREGON  ASH 

{Fraxinus  Oregona) 

THIS  tree  is  unusual  in  that  it  has  only  one  common  name,  and  that 
is  a  translation  of  its  botanical  name  which  was  given  it  by  Nuttall 
who  visited  the  Pacific  coast  several  years  before  the  discovery  of  gold. 

The  moist  bottom  lands  of  southwestern  Oregon  are  best  suited  to 
its  growth,  and  here  the  best  individuals  and  most  abundant  stands  are 
foimd.  Moist  soil  and  climate  are  essential  to  proper  development  of 
this  tree,  and  in  such  environment  it  is  found  from  Puget  Soimd  south- 
ward along  the  coast  to  San  Francisco.  A  little  fxu-ther  from  the  coast  it 
grows  along  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  to  the  low 
mountains  in  San  Diego  and  San  Bernardino  coimties,  California,  in  the 
southern  extension  of  its  range  occupying  a  rather  dry  region. 

The  trunk  grows  to  a  height  of  eighty  or  100  feet,  and  is  often  three 
feet  in  diameter.  It  is  covered  with  a  gray-brown  bark,  exfoliating  in 
flaky  scales.  The  leaves  are  from  five  to  fourteen  inches  long,  and 
have  five  or  seven  firm,  light-green  leaflets,  finely  toothed  and  bluntly 
pointed.  The  flowers  appear  in  April  and  May  and  are  in  compact 
panicles;  the  fruit  in  clusters,  broadly  winged  and  roimd  pointed,  and 
from  one  to  two  inches  long. 

The  scarcity  of  good  hardwoods  on  the  Pacific  coast  gives  this  ash 
more  importance  than  it  otherwise  would  have,  and  the  importance 
which  it  possesses  has  been  frequently  overstated.  It  is  not  abundant 
of  form  and  size  fitting  it  for  liunber.  It  has  long  been  cut  in  small 
quantities,  but  never  in  large.  The  census  returns  for  1910  show  that 
less  than  400,000  feet  per  year  are  reported  in  its  entu-e  range.  Three- 
fom-ths  of  this  is  sawed  in  Oregon,  the  remainder  in  Washington. 
Though  the  species  has  a  range  of  SOO  miles  north  and  south  through 
California,  no  sawmill  reported  a  foot  of  it.  However,  it  is  probable  that 
census  returns  fail  to  do  this  wood  full  justice;  for  it  is  well  known  that 
considerable  quantities  are  manufactured  into  articles  without  passing 
through  sawmills.  Chief  among  such  commodities  is  slack  cooperage. 
Butter  tubs  of  Oregon  ash  are  common.  Much  goes  to  wagon  shops,  and 
some  of  it  without  aid  of  sawmills. 

Little  or  none  of  this  wood  is  shipped  outside  its  range,  and  its  use 
is  local.  Boat  builders  work  it  into  finish  for  cabins  and  upper  parts, 
and  some  serves  as  ribs.  It  is  often  seen  as  handles  for  picks,  shovels, 
spades,  pitchforks,  and  rakes.  A  little  finds  place,  combined  with  other 
woods,  in  office  and  store  fixtures.  Its  grain  resembles  that  of  white 
ash.     It  is  not  as  heavy,  and  it  is  not  believed  to  be  as  strong.    It  is 

421 


422  American  Forest  Trees 

hard,  brittle,  brown  in  color,  with  thick,  lighter-colored  sapwood. 
Fumitiore  makers  list  it  as  shop  material,  and  such  is  its  largest  reported 
use  in  Washington.  A  moderate  amount  is  made  into  saddletrees  and 
stirrups,  and  much  is  used  as  fuel. 

Oregon  ash  has  been  planted  for  shade  and  ornament  in  both  this 
country  and  Europe.  It  grows  rapidly  and  develops  a  symmetrical 
crown.  The  habit  it  has  of  coming  into  leaf  late  in  the  spring  and  throw- 
ing its  foliage  down  early  in  autumn  is  held  by  some  as  a  serious  objection 
to  it  as  an  ornamental  tree;  but  it  has  compensating  habits.  It  is 
remarkably  free  from  disease,  and,  though  leaves  come  late  and  go  early, 
while  its  foliage  is  on,  it  is  healthy  and  vigorous.  Reproduction  is 
satisfactory  in  the  tree's  wild  state,  and  there  is  no  danger  that  the 
species  will  disappear.  No  movement  has  yet  been  made  to  plant  this 
ash  for  cormnercial  timber  growing. 

Green  Ash  {Fraxinus  lanceolata)  has  been  given  that  name  on 
account  of  the  bright  color  of  its  foliage.  It  has  other  names,  however, 
which  indicate  that  its  greenness  is  not  always  preeminently  prominent. 
In  Iowa  and  Arkansas  they  call  it  blue  ash;  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
white  ash;  in  some  regions  it  is  known  as  water  ash,  and  elsewhere 
swamp  ash.  Some  botanists  do  not  regard  it  as  a  separate  species  but 
call  it  a  variety  of  red  ash,  but  the  concensus  of  opinion  is  that  it  is  a 
distinct  species,  though  there  appear  to  be  connecting  forms  grading 
from  red  ash  into  green  ash.  Certain  it  is  that  the  two  are  distinct 
enough  in  certain  parts  of  the  country.  The  range  of  green  ash  is  more 
extensive  than  that  of  any  other  ash  in  this  country.  Beginning  in 
Vermont  it  passes  southward  to  Florida;  northwestward  to  the  Saskatch- 
ewan river  several  hundred  miles  north  of  the  international  boundary 
line;  along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  over  the  ranges  to 
Arizona,  and  through  Texas.  This  includes  more  than  half  of  the  area 
of  the  United  States.  Notwithstanding  a  range  so  extensive,  the  total 
quantity  of  green  ash  timber  in  the  country  is  not  large.  No  pure  forests 
or  extensive  stands  exist.  Trees  are  widely  dispersed,  and  when  lum- 
bermen cut  them,  the  wood  is  sold  as  some  other,  usually  as  white  ash. 
The  wood  has  the  general  characters  of  red  ash.  It  weighs  about  forty- 
four  pounds  per  cubic  foot  of  dry  wood;  is  moderately  strong,  fairly 
stiff  and  elastic,  and,  like  other  species  of  ash,  it  is  not  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil. 

Green  ash  is  more  planted  than  any  other  in  the  cold  and  dry 
regions  of  the  West  and  Northwest.  It  is  a  prairie  tree  and  is  found  along 
highways  and  in  door  yards  from  Kansas  northward  into  British 
America.  It  stands  drought  better  than  any  other  ash,  and  resists  cold 
fully  as  well,  and  yet  it  endiures  the  warm  weather  and  the  rains  of  the 


American  Forest  Trees  423 

South  and  floiu-ishes  there.  It  is  not  a  large  tree,  but  of  sufficient  size 
for  use  as  fiuTiitiu-e,  finish,  and  vehicle  making.  It  is  seldom  listed  in 
statistics  of  woods  which  go  to  sawmills,  yet  it  is  known  that  a  good 
many  logs  find  their  way  to  mills,  while  wagon  makers  and  slack  coopers 
employ  it  in  producing  their  commodities.  The  tree  is  an  abundant 
seeder,  and  the  seeds  continue  to  fall  during  most  of  the  winter. 

Red  Ash  (Fraxinus  pennsylvanica)  is  neither  a  large  tree  nor  very  abundant, 
yet  it  has  a  wide  range  and  is  put  to  use  wherever  lumbermen  find  it  convenient. 
The  lumber  generally  passes  in  the  market  as  white  ash,  and  for  most  purposes  it  is 
as  good,  but  is  rated  lower  than  that  wood  in  elasticity.  It  is  called  brown  ash  in 
Maine,  black  ash  in  New  Jersey,  river  ash  in  Rhode  Island.  The  last  name  is  be- 
stowed because  the  tree  prefers  moist  land  near  rivers  and  ponds,  and  largest  speci- 
mens are  found  in  such  situations,  where  it  is  often  an  associate  of  black  ash  and  is 
frequently  mistaken  for  it,  though  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  tell  the  species  apart. 
A  slight  reddish  tinge  sometimes  shows  on  the  outer  bark ;  the  inner  layer  of  bark  is 
reddish;  the  small  twigs  and  the  under  sides  of  leaves  are  clothed  with  hairs  which 
sometimes  suggest  redness;  and  the  heartwood  is  reddish-brown.  Persons  who  speak 
of  the  tree  as  red  ash  probably  have  one  or  more  of  those  characteristics  in  mind.  As 
a  tree  it  has  no  striking  peculiarities.  Its  usual  height  is  forty  or  sixty  feet;  its 
diameter  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches;  its  compound  leaves  ten  or  twelve  inches  long, 
with  seven  or  nine  leaflets;  its  seeds  one  or  two  inches  in  length,  narrow,  and  sharply 
pointed,  with  slender,  graceful  wing. 

The  range  of  red  ash  is  from  New  Brunswick  to  Dakota,  and  from  Florida  to 
Alabama,  with  all  of  the  included  region  of  a  million  square  miles.  It  attains  its  best 
development  in  the  north  Atlantic  states,  while  it  is  usually  inferior  west  of  the 
Alleghany  mountains.  It  develops  a  broad  crown  in  open  ground,  but  even  there  its 
lower  limbs  die  and  drop,  while  in  forests  the  trunk  grows  tall  and  the  crown  is  re- 
duced. It  is  planted  for  shade  and  ornament,  but  it  seems  to  have  no  superiority 
over  white  ash  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  the  Michigan  manufacturers  list  red  ash 
separately  in  their  factories,  and  apparently  this  is  not  done  elsewhere  in  the  country. 
About  three-quarters  of  a  million  feet  a  year  are  used  in  that  state,  and  since  uses 
there  are  doubtless  typical  of  uses  in  the  country  generally,  the  list  possesses  im- 
portance: Automobile  frames,  boxes,  butter  tubs,  crates,  eveners,  flooring,  furniture, 
interior  finish,  neck  yokes,  singletrees,  wagon  poles.  Farther  east  in  early  times  red 
ash  was  occasionally  split  for  fence  rails,  but  that  use  is  important  now  only  as  history. 

Pumpkin  Ash  {Fraxinus  profunda)  is  a  tree  of  peculiar  interest.  It  was 
unknown  before  1893,  though  the  region  had  been  settled  over  a  hundred  years.  It 
has  the  largest  leaves,  largest  fruit,  and  largest  swelled  base  of  all  American  ashes. 
Notwithstanding  that,  it  remained  so  deeply  hidden  in  swamps  that  it  escaped  dis- 
covery. The  botanical  name  refers  to  the  deep  swamps  in  which  the  tree  chooses  its 
habitation.  Its  great,  swelled  base  enables  it  to  stand  on  the  soft  mud  of  lagoon 
bottoms,  and  the  abnormal  swelling  is  ribbed  like  a  pumpkin,  hence  the  only  English 
name  the  tree  has  ever  had.  These  are  not  the  only  remarkable  things  connected 
with  this  ash.  Its  range  includes  three  or  four  deep  swamps,  far  apart.  One  is  in 
southern  Missouri,  New  Madrid  country,  another  near  Varney,  Arkansas,  and  a  third, 
in  a  vast  morass  on  the  Apalachicola  river,  Florida.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
originally  a  Florida  species,  and  by  some  freak  of  nature  it  reached  the  Missouri  and 
Arkansas  swamps.  Certain  other  Florida  plants  accompanied  it,  one  of  which  was 
corkwood  {Leitneria  floridana).     It  is  expected  that  pumpkin  ash  will  be  found  else- 


424  American  Forest  Trees 

where  in  deep  swamps  intermediate  between  the  extremes  of  its  range.  The  uses  of 
this  wood  are  few,  because  it  is  scarce,  and  the  trees  are  difficult  of  access  on  account 
of  being  nearly  always  surrounded  by  water.  Lumbermen  who  operate  in  swamps 
occasionally  bring  out  a  few  ash  logs  with  cypress  and  tupelo.  No  tests  seem  to 
have  been  made  of  the  wood.  Trees  are  sometimes  120  feet  high  and  three  in  diam- 
eter above  the  swelled  bases. 

Water  Ash  (Fraxinus  caroliniana)  is  much  lighter  in  weight  than  any  other 
American  ash,  and  the  wood  is  also  lighter  in  color.  It  is  weaker  and  less  elastic 
than  any  other,  and  is  lower  in  fuel  value.  It  weighs  less  than  white  pine.  It  grows 
in  deep  swamps  from  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  and  westward  in  swamps  to  Texas. 
Some  have  confused  it  with  pumpkin  ash,  but  the  two  are  quite  distinct.  This  tree 
is  also  called  poppy  ash.  The  leaves  are  from  seven  to  twelve  inches  long,  with  five  or 
seven  leaflets  which  are  much  blunter  than  most  other  ash  leaves.  The  seeds  are 
nearly  in  the  center  of  the  broad,  long  wing,  and  are  better  flyers  than  most  ash  seeds. 
The  tree  seldom  exceeds  forty  feet  in  height,  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  not 
known  that  the  wood  is  ever  used.  Its  scarcity  will  keep  it  from  becoming  important, 
though  its  unconmion  lightness  may  lead  to  its  employment  for  certain  purposes. 

BiuTUORB  Ash  (Fraxinus  biltmoreana)  is  named  from  Biltmore,  N.  C,  where 
the  tree  attains  its  best  development,  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet  and  a  foot  or  less  ia 
diameter.  Its  range  extends  from  northern  West  Virginia  southward  along  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  middle  Tennessee.  The 
seed  wings  are  slender,  and  only  slightly  narrowed  at  the  end.  The  leaf  is  ten  or 
twelve  inches  long,  with  seven  or  nine  leaflets.  The  twigs  of  young  trees  are  hairy. 
An  occasional  log  doubtless  goes  to  sawmills,  but  no  report  has  been  made  of  uses  of 
the  wood. 

Fl,orida  Ash  (Fraxinus  floridana)  is  a  deep  swamp  tree,  thirty  or  forty  feet 
high,  and  a  few  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  found  in  the  valley  of  St.  Mary's  river, 
southern  Georgia,  and  along  the  lower  Apalachicola  river,  Florida.  The  compound 
leaves  are  five  or  more  inches  long  with  three  or  five  leaflets.  The  seeds  are  small  but 
their  wings  are  wide  and  long.  No  report  has  been  made  concerning  the  quality 
of  the  wood,  nor  has  it  been  used,  as  far  as  known.     The  supply  is  very  small. 


SUGAR  MAPLE 


Sugar  Maple 


SUGAR  MAPLE 

(,4  ccr  Sacchartim) 

THE  makers  of  sugar  in  the  North  call  this  tree  sugar  maple,  but 
lumbermen  and  users  of  wood  nearly  always  speak  of  it  as  hard 
maple.  All  maples — and  there  are  nearly  a  dozen — are  tolerably  hard, 
and  sugar  may  be  obtained  from  most  of  them ;  but  this  species  is  hardest 
of  all,  and  the  most  prolific  sugar  maker,  hence  the  two  names  are 
appropriate.  It  is  often  called  rock  maple,  which  name  refers  to  its 
hard  wood.     In  some  regions  the  name  most  heard  is  sugar  tree. 

Its  range  extends  from  Newfoundland  through  Canada  to  Lake 
of  the  Woods,  southward  through  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
Arkansas  to  Texas.  It  is  found  in  every  state  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
but  it  is  not  abundant  in  the  South.  Its  best  development  is  found  from 
New  England  across  the  northern  states  to  Michigan.  Some  very  fine 
sugar  maple  is  found  in  fertile  valleys  and  on  slopes  among  the  Appa- 
lachian ranges  from  Pennsylvania  southward.  The  largest  lumber  cut 
of  maple  is  in  the  following  states,  ranging  in  the  order  given:  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Vermont.  Since  the  different  species  of  maple  are  not  reported  separate- 
ly in  statistics,  there  is  no  way  of  determining  how  much  each  of  the 
maples  supplies.  It  is  well  known  that  sugar  maple  greatly  exceeds  all 
others. 

At  its  best  this  tree  may  exceed  a  height  of  100  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  three ;  but  the  average  for  mature  timber  in  the  best  part  of  its  range  is 
sixty  or  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  two  in  diameter.  The  flowers  appear 
with  the  leaves  in  early  spring,  but  the  seeds  do  not  ripen  until  autumn, 
when  they  are  bright  red.  They  are  winged,  and  usually  two  grow 
together,  but  they  sometimes  become  detached,  in  which  case  each  is 
capable  of  flight  with  its  single  wing.  It  is  characteristic  of  maple  seeds 
to  whirl  rapidly  while  falling,  and  if  a  moderate  wind  is  blowing,  they 
glide  considerable  distances.  They  usually  fly  farther  than  the  seeds  of 
ash  although  their  wings  are  no  larger.  The  immense  numbers  of  seeds 
borne  by  the  sugar  maple  insure  abundant  reproduction  in  the  vicinity 
of  parent  trees.  The  seeds  sprout  readily,  but  often  so  closely  crowded 
together  that  most  of  them  die  the  first  few  weeks.  Not  one  in  ten 
thousand  can  even  become  a  large  tree,  and  yet  large  trees  are  exceed- 
ingly abundant  in  extensive  regions.  They  often  form  nearl}^  pure 
stands,  crowding  to  death  all  rivals  that  try  to  obtain  a  foothold.  On 
the  other  hand,  this  maple  often  contents  itself  with  a  place  among 
other  forest  trees. 


428  American  Forest  Trees 

It  is  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  dependable  of  trees.  It  does 
not  grow  fast.but  it  keeps  steadily  at  it  a  long  time, and  enjoys  unusually 
good  health.  Its  worst  enemy  is  coal  smoke,  but  fortunately,  most 
sugar  maple  forests  are  out  of  reach  of  that  disturber,  though  shade 
trees  near  factory  towns  and  in  the  vicinity  of  coke  ovens  often  suffer. 
Woodlots  of  sugar  maple,  occupying  comers  of  farms  in  the  northern 
states  from  Minnesota  to  Maine,  present  pictures  of  health,  vigor,  cleanli- 
ness, and  beauty  which  no  forest  tree  surpasses.  The  intense  green  and 
the  density  of  the  crowns  in  summer  make  the  trees  conspicuous  in  any 
landscape  where  they  occur,  while  their  brilliant  colors  in  autumn  are 
the  chief  glory  of  the  forest  where  they  abound. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  hard,  strong,  and  dense.  It  is  three 
pounds  lighter  per  cubic  foot  than  white  oak,  and  theoretically  it  rates  a 
little  lower  in  fuel  value,  but  those  who  use  both  woods  as  fuel  consider 
maple  worth  more.  It  is  thkty  per  cent  stronger  than  white  oak,  and 
fifty-three  per  cent  stiffer.  The  wood  is  diffuse-porous,  that  is,  the 
pores  are  not  arranged  in  bands  or  rows,  as  they  usually  are  in  oaks,  but 
are  scattered  in  all  parts.  They  are  too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye,  but  under  a  magnifying  glass  they  are  visible  in  large  numbers. 
The  yearly  ring  is  not  very  distinct,  because  of  the  slight  contrast 
between  spring  and  summerwood.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous 
but  small.  In  wood  sawed  along  radial  lines,  from  heart  to  sap,  small 
silvery  flecks  are  numerous.  These  are  the  medullary  rays.  They  add 
something  to  the  appearance  of  quarter-sawed  maple,  but  not  enough 
to  induce  mills  to  turn  out  much  of  it. 

Such  figures  as  maple  has  are  brought  out  best  in  tangential  sawing 
— that  is,  cut  like  a  slab  off  the  side  of  the  log.  Three  distinct  figures  are 
recognized  in  sugar  maple,  and  to  some  extent  they  belong  to  other 
maples.  These  forms  of  wood  are  known  as  birdseye,  curly,  and  blister 
maple.  They  are  accidental  forms  and  exist  in  certain  trees  only. 
Students  of  wood  structure  are  not  wholly  agreed  as  to  the  cause  of  these 
forms,  but  one  of  them,  the  bu-dseye  effect,  is  believed  to  be  due  to 
adventitious  buds  which  distort  the  wood  in  their  vicinity.  These  buds 
start  near  the  center  of  the  tree  when  it  is  small,  but  never  succeed  in 
forcing  their  way  out.  They  remain  just  beneath  the  bark  during  most 
or  the  whole  of  the  tree's  life.  A  pin-like  core,  resembling  a  fine 
thread,  connects  the  birdseye  with  the  tree's  pith.  This  thread  is  the 
pith  of  the  embryonic  branch  formed  by  the  bud  which  never  breaks 
through  the  bark.  When  the  wood  is  sawed  tangentially,  small,  dark- 
brown  points  or  dots  show  the  center  of  the  buds,  or  the  pith  line  con- 
necting it  with  the  tree's  center.  Curly  maple  and  blister  maple  are 
not  believed  to  be  formed  in  the  same  way  as  birdseye. 


American  Forest  Trees  429 

The  uses  of  sugar  maple  are  nearly  universal,  where  a  hard,  white 
wood  is  wanted.  Many  large  trees  contain  little  colored  heart,  and  trees 
are  generally  fifty  years  old  before  they  have  any.  More  maple  is  worked 
into  flooring  than  into  any  other  one  commodity.  Alills  in  Michigan 
alone,  in  1910,  made  185,611,662  feet  of  maple  flooring.  It  was  shipped 
to  practically  every  civilized  country  in  the  world.  Many  builders 
consider  it  the  best  wooden  floor  that  can  be  laid.  In  a  test  made  in  a 
large  store  in  Philadelphia  some  years  ago,  a  marble  floor  wore  through 
sooner  than  maple,  when  the  same  wear  was  on  both. 

Nearly  all  kinds  and  classes  of  furniture  have  places  for  maple, 
either  as  outside  material  or  inside  frames,  drawer  bottoms,  or  partitions. 
Vehicle  manufacturers  employ  it  for  heavy  axles,  running  gear,  parts  of 
automobiles,  sleigh  runners  and  frames,  and  hand  sleds.  It  is  made  into 
handles  from  gimlet  sizes  to  cant  hooks.  Gymnasium  apparatus  owes 
much  to  the  whiteness,  smoothness,  and  strength  of  maple.  Wooden- 
ware  from  toothpicks  to  ironing  boards;  from  butcher  blocks  to  butter 
molds;  from  door  knobs  to  die  blocks,  is  dependent  on  maple  for  some  of 
its  best  material.  It  is  largely  used  for  boxes,  in  both  solid  and  veneer 
form.  Only  two  woods  are  now  employed  in  larger  amounts  for  veneers 
in  the  United  States  than  maple.     They  are  red  gum  and  yellow  pine. 

Maple  is  one  of  the  three  woods  most  largely  employed  in  hard- 
wood distillation  in  this  country;  beech  and  birch  are  the  others. 
Maple  sugar  is  a  product  of  this  tree  almost  exclusively,  and  the  business 
is  large.  In  some  parts  of  New  England  it  is  claimed  that  a  grove  is 
worth  more  for  sugar  than  the  land  is  worth  for  agricultm-e. 

Silver  Maple  {Acer  saccharinum)  is  generally  called  soft  maple  by  lumber- 
men. It  is  known  also  as  white  maple,  river  maple,  silver-leaved  maple,  swamp 
maple,  and  water  maple.  The  sinuouses  of  the  leaves  are  very  deep.  The  Ughter 
colorof  its  bark  and  the  pale  green  of  the  leaves  distinguish  soft  maple  at  a  glance  from 
sugar  maple  when  both  are  in  full  leaf.  The  greenish -j'ellow  flowers  open  in  early 
spring,  and  the  seeds  are  ripe  in  April  or  May,  depending  on  the  season  and  region. 
The  seeds  have  large  wings  and  fly  well.  They  germinate  in  a  few  days  after  they 
find  suitable  soil,  and  before  the  end  of  the  summer  the  seedlings  have  grown  several 
leaves.  The  vigor  thus  displayed  continues  until  the  tree  is  large.  It  is  a  fast  grovi'er, 
and  for  that  reason  has  been  extensively  planted  as  a  street  and  park  tree.  The 
wisdom  of  doing  so  is  doubtful,  for  this  maple  throws  out  long  limbs  which  are  often 
broken  by  wind.  The  trunk  is  subject  to  disease,  and  a  row  of  old  soft  maples  nearly 
always  presents  a  ragged,  unkept,  neglected  appearance.  As  to  beauty  of  form  and 
crown,  there  is  little  comparison  between  it  and  the  planted  sugar  maple.  Soft 
maples  in  forests  range  fr  im  seventy-five  to  120  feet  in  height,  and  two  to  four  in 
diameter:  that  is,  they  attain  about  the  same  size  as  sugar  maples.  The  species 
covers  a  million  square  miles,  practically  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
some  west  of  that  river,  and  most  of  eastern  Canada. 

It  is  a  useful  wood  for  many  purposes.  The  custom  of  mixing  this  with  sugar 
maple  makes  it  impossible  to  clearly  separate  the  two  woods  afterwards.     It  is  the 


430 


American  Forest  Trees 


opinion  of  some  well-infurnicd  manufacturers  that  about  five  per  cent  of  the  total 
maple  cut  in  the  United  States  is  soft  maple.  The  ratio  is  less  in  the  North  and  more 
in  the  South.  The  wood  is  hard,  strong,  rather  brittle,  easily  worked,  pale  brown 
with  thick,  white  sapwood.  Some  rather  large  trunks  have  no  sapwood.  It  is  in 
general  use,  but  not  for  as  many  purposes  as  sugar  maple.  The  largest  places  found 
for  it  are  as  flooring  and  woodenware,  though  furniture  and  boxes,  particularly  veneer 
boxes,  consume  much .  Its  weight  is  three-fourths  that  of  sugar  maple.  The  largest 
trees  and  the  best  wood  grow  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley. 


RED  MAPLE 


RED  MAPLE 

(Acer  Rubruin) 

THIS  tree's  names  describe  it.  Some  refer  to  color  of  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruit,  others  to  situation  where  it  grows  best.  It  is  known  as 
red  maple  and  swamp  maple;  also  as  water  maple,  white  maple,  scarlet 
maple,  and  shoepeg  maple.  New  York  Indianas  called  it  ah-we-hot- 
kwah,  which  meant  red  flower.  Most  trees  looked  alike  to  Indians,  and 
when  they  gave  a  name,  it  was  descriptive. 

The  redness  of  this  maple  is  so  marked  that  it  cannot  escape  notice. 
The  flowers,  fruit,  twigs,  and  leaves  all  possess  the  property  at  one  time 
or  another  during  the  season.  The  flower  comes  before  the  leaf,  during 
the  first  warm  days  of  spring.  That  is  pretty  early  in  the  South,  and 
later  in  the  North.  The  flowers  are  bright  scarlet,  and  very  conspicuous, 
growing  in  umbel-like,  drooping  clusters.  The  staminate  and  pistillate 
ones  frequently  grow  on  different  trees,  and  always  in  separate  clusters. 

The  fruit  ripens  quickly,  and  is  sometimes  almost  mature  before 
the  haves  appear.  The  date  of  ripening  depends  upon  latitude.  The 
tree's  range  north  and  south  exceeds  a  thousand  miles  and  that  makes 
much  difference  in  climate.  In  the  South  the  fruit  outstrips  the  leaves 
and  has  about  reached  maturity  before  the  unfolding  leaves  are  large 
enough  to  hide  it ;  but  in  New  England  and  New  York  the  leaves  are  large 
before  the  fruit  is  mature.  The  seed  is  the  characteristic  maple  key, 
with  a  wing  to  carry  it.  The  fruit — and  by  that  term  the  seed  with  its 
attached  wing  is  meant — is  bright  red,  and  a  tree  loaded  with  the  vivid 
clusters  is  a  beautiful  spectacle.  Two  seeds  are  generally  fast  together, 
and  they  make  surprising  flights  in  that  condition,  passing  with  whirling 
motion  through  the  air.  Gravity  spins  them,  but  wind  carries  them  for- 
ward, and  the  random  of  their  flight  depends  on  the  strength  of  the  wind, 
which  happens  to  be  blowing  when  they  sever  their  connection  with  the 
tree. 

The  seeds  germinate  quickly  when  they  light  on  damp  soil.  If 
they  do  not  find  such  situations,  they  soon  perish ;  because  they  do  not 
retain  their  vitality  long.  By  the  middle  of  summer  the  young  trees 
have  several  leaves,  and  from  that  time  on  the  struggle  is  mainly  among 
themselves  for  space  and  moisture,  because  they  stand  so  thick  that  it  is 
a  survival  of  the  fittest. 

The  young  twigs  are  generally  red  in  spring,  but  they  do  not  present 
as  conspicuous  a  mass  as  the  flowers  and  fruit  do.  The  leaves  are  simple, 
with  long  reddish  petioles.  They  have  three  or  five  lobes,  the  lower  pair 
often  entirely  missing,  and  small  if  present.     Each  lobe  has  a  pointed 


434  American  Forest  Trees 

apex,  and  is  irregularly  serrate.  The  base  of  the  leaf  is  rounded;  also 
the  sinuses,  which  extend  far  into  the  body  of  the  leaf.  The  upper 
siu-face  of  the  leaf  is  bright  green,  the  lower  a  silvery-white.  In  the  fall 
this  tree  is  entitled  to  the  name  scarlet ;  for  then  the  brilliant  hues  of  the 
leaves  are  remarkably  fine. 

The  range  of  red  maple  covers  more  than  a  million  square  miles,  and 
touches  every  state  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  west  of  that  stream 
it  extends  from  South  Dakota  to  Texas.  It  prefers  rather  swampy 
ground,  but  wants  fertile  soil.  It  is  frequently  found  on  the  banks  of 
creeks  and  rivers,  and  rarely  on  hillsides.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the 
South,  particularly  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  while  trees  of  larger 
size  are  found  in  the  valley  of  the  lower  Ohio.  In  the  North  it  takes 
more  to  low  wet  swamps  where  it  sometimes  grows  in  such  thickets  as 
almost  to  exclude  other  species. 

The  best  red  maple  trees  attain  a  height  of  100  feet  or  more,  and  a 
diameter  of  four  feet  or  less.  The  average  size  is  seventy  feet  high  and 
two  in  diameter.  The  form  of  the  tree,  like  that  of  all  other  maples, 
depends  much  upon  the  situation  in  which  it  grows.  Good  saw  timber 
is  not  often  cut  from  this  species  near  the  outer  borders  of  its  range. 

The  wood  is  about  three-fourths  as  strong  as  hard  maple,  and  is 
five  pounds  lighter  per  cubic  foot,  but  is  about  six  pounds  heavier  than 
soft  or  silver  maple.  It  may,  therefore,  be  considered  that  in  some 
important  points  red  maple  is  midway  between  hard  and  soft  maple.  In 
color  it  is  light  brown,  slightly  tinged  with  red.  The  sapwood  is  thick 
and  lighter  in  color  than  the  heart.  The  tree  is  usually  not  of  rapid 
growth.  The  contrast  between  the  springwood  and  summerwood  is  not 
strong.  The  wood  is  very  porous,  but  the  pores  are  so  small  that  the 
unaided  eye  cannot  discern  them.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous, 
but  thin,  and  are  seldom  considered  in  working  the  lumber. 

Mills  which  saw  this  maple  do  not  separate  the  lumber  from  other 
maples.  The  woodsman  knows  the  difference,  but  the  lumberman  does 
not  consider  it  worth  while  to  pile  the  sawed  stock  separately.  It 
sometimes  goes  to  market  as  hard  maple,  sometimes  as  soft,  but  never 
under  its  own  name.  Consequently,  it  has  no  uses  which  are  not  also 
common  to  other  maples.  Lumbermen  cut  it  when  they  find  it  mixed 
with  other  hardwoods  where  they  are  carrying  on  logging  operations. 

Red  maple  is  made  into  flooring,  interior  finish,  and  veneer  box 
material.  Veneers  are  also  made  for  furniture.  These  are  the  most 
important  uses  for  the  wood,  but  the  manufacturers  of  woodenware 
employ  it  for  numerous  commodities,  such  as  trays,  bowls,  ironing  boards, 
grain  scoops,  snow  shovels,  clothes  racks,  garment  hangers,  and  clothes 
pins.     This  species  shows  birdseye  effect  similar  to  that  of  sugar  maple, 


American  Forest  Trees  435 

but  less  of  the  stock  goes  to  market.  Logs  with  birdseye  wood  are 
generally  reduced  to  veneer  by  the  rotary  process.  Curly  and  wavy 
grains  also  occur  in  this  maple.  The  wavy  grain  was  much  sought  after 
by  the  early  hunters  who  equipped  their  long  rifles  with  stocks.  Having 
found  a  piece  of  timber  with  the  desired  wavy  grain,  the  hunter  pro- 
ceeded to  shave  and  whittle  until  the  stock  was  fitted  to  the  barrel,  and 
the  gun  was  complete.  Some  of  the  stocks  made  with  no  tools  but  an 
ax,  drawing  knife,  and  a  pocket  knife,  were  works  of  art  which  are 
worthy  of  preservation  in  museums. 

Occasionally  some  imknown  rural  Stradivari  made  a  violin  and 
selected  the  curly  wood  of  red  maple  for  the  neck  and  sides.  A  few  of 
these  instruments  are  floating  about  the  country,  but  an  age  of  fifty  or 
a  hundred  years  has  not  yet  imparted  classic  value  to  them,  but  the  wood 
is  unsurpassed  in  delicacy  of  grain  and  figm-e. 

Sugar  may  be  manufactvured  from  red  maple,  but  in  smaller  quan- 
tity than  from  sugar  maple.  In  the  days  when  every  frontier  settle- 
ment did  its  own  manufacturing,  inks  and  dyes  were  made  from  the  bark 
of  this  tree.  The  tannin  boiled  from  the  bark  was  treated  with  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  it  became  ink;  when  alum  was  added  it  became  black  dye; 
when  the  sulphate  of  iron  was  omitted,  and  alum  alone  was  put  in,  a 
cinnamon-colored  dye  resulted. 

Red  maple  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  trees  for  planting  in  parks 
and  by  roadsides.  Nurserymen  complain  that  seedlings  are  more 
difficult  to  manage  than  silver  maples ;  nor  do  they  grow  as  rapidly,  but 
the  trees  are  worth  much  more  when  once  established.  They  have 
shorter  and  stronger  branches  than  silver  maple;  are  less  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  disease;  are  more  handsome  in  every  way;  but  they  demand 
damper  soil,  and  succeed  poorly  in  any  other.  That  drawback  tends  to 
restrict  the  artificial  planting  of  this  tree. 

Mountain  Maple  (Acer  spicatum)  is  known  also  as  moose  maple,  low  maple, 
and  water  maple.  It  is  a  small  tree  at  its  best,  seldom  more  than  twenty-five  feet 
high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter,  while  in  most  parts  of  its  range  it  is  only  a  shrub. 
Its  best  growth  is  on  mountain  slopes  of  eastern  Tennessee  and  western  North  Caro- 
lina. It  likes  moist,  rich  hillsides,  and  does  not  object  to  shade.  The  flowers  come 
late,  but  within  a  month  or  six  weeks  after  the  bloom  appears,  the  fruit  is  full  grown, 
but  it  remains  on  the  tree  till  autumn.  The  tree's  bark  is  smooth  and  very  thin. 
The  absence  of  stripes  distinguishes  this  tree  from  striped  maple,  which  has  nearly  the 
same  range.  Mountain  maple  grows  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  southward  to  Mich- 
igan, and  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  brown  tinged  with 
red.  The  small  size  of  the  trunk  forbids  its  conversion  into  ordinary  lumber.  The 
only  commercial  use  reported  for  it  is  in  Pennsylvania  where  it  is  cut  along  with 
other  hardwoods  for  destructive  distillation. 

Florida  Maple  (Acer  floridanum)  is  a  species  according  to  some,  and  according 
to  others  is  a  variety  of  the  hard  maple.     Its  range  is  Hmited,  and  the  available 


436  American  Forest  Trees 

quantity  of  the  wood  is  small.  It  is  found  in  the  swar.ips  of  southern  Georgia  and 
western  Florida,  and  westward  to  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  southern  Arkansas.  Near 
the  southwestern  limits  of  its  range  in  Te.xas  and  Mexico,  it  is  often  a  shrub;  but 
in  the  best  part  of  its  range  it  becomes  a  tree  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high  and  two  or  three 
in  diameter.  The  wood  passes  for  hard  maple  when  sawed  into  lumber,  but  it  is  not 
often  sent  to  sawmills.  The  makers  of  bent  wood  rustic  furniture  in  some  of  the 
southern  towns,  particularly  in  Louisiana,  have  found  the  slender  branches  of 
Florida  maple  well  suited  to  that  purpose. 

Drummond  Maple  {Acer  ritbrum  drummondii)  is  a  variety  of  red  maple,  not  a 
separate  species.  Its  range  lies  in  the  coastal  plain  of  Alabama  and  Georgia,  western 
Louisiana,  eastern  Texas,  southwestern  Tennessee,  and  southern  Arkansas.  It 
grows  in  deep  swamps,  and  has  three-lobed  leaves,  and  large-winged  fruit,  ripening  in 
.\pril  and  May.  The  wood  is  too  scarce  to  be  important  in  the  lumber  trade,  but 
where  it  can  be  had  it  is  used.  Violin  makers  have  procured  some  finely  curled  wood 
of  this  maple  in  Union  Parish,  Louisiana.  Some  of  the  wood  from  that  district  has 
been  made  into  gunstocks  also. 

Whitebark  Maple  (Acer  leucoderme)  has  been  classed  as  a  variety  of  sugar 
maple,  and  also  as  a  separate  species.  It  is  named  from  the  light  gray  color  of  the 
bark  of  young  stems;  but  the  color  turns  dark  with  age.  The  tree  is  usually  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  high  with  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more.  The  wood  is  of  good  quality, 
but  no  uses,  except  fuel,  have  been  reported.  Trees  are  not  abundant,  but  the  range 
covers  parts  of  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  .Alabama,  Louisiana,  and  Ar- 
kansas. It  is  occasionally  planted  as  a  shade  tree  along  the  streets  of  towns  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama. 


OREGON  MAPLE 


^If'l'            > 

I. .              ,rl 

■WNnH    '^      yor^'^ 

i 

Hj^HOK^^^^^^i 

1 

1 

^^^^^^ByHy^^^^l 

Oregon  Mai-le 

OREGON  MAPLE 

(Acer  Macrophyllum) 

BOTANISTS  prefer  to  call  this  tree  broadleaf  maple.  The  name  is 
not  inappropriate,  as  its  extraordinarily  broad  leaves  constitute  the 
most  striking  featm-e  of  the  tree  where  it  stands  in  the  woods.  The 
leaf  is  usually  wider  than  it  is  long.  Some  exceed  a  foot  in  both  measure- 
ments. Bigleaf  maple  is  not  an  uncommon  name  for  the  tree  in  Oregon, 
where  it  attains  its  highest  development  in  damp  valleys  where  the  soil 
is  good.  The  name  white  maple  is  not  particularly  descriptive  of  any 
feature  of  the  tree,  though  the  name  is  applied  in  both  Oregon  and 
Washington.  In  California  it  is  known  simply  as  maple.  There  is 
small  likelihood  in  that  region  that  it  will  be  confused  with  any  other 
member  of  the  maple  household;  nor  is  there  much  danger  of  such  a  thing 
in  any  part  of  the  Pacific  coast,  for,  though  four  species  of  maple  occur 
there,  no  one  of  them  bears  close  enough  resemblance  to  this  one  to  be 
mistaken  for  it. 

The  Oregon  maple's  range  north  and  south  covers  twenty  degrees  of 
latitude.  In  that  particular  it  is  not  much  surpassed,  if  surpassed  at 
all,  by  any  maple  of  this  coimtry.  Its  northern  limit  lies  in  Alaska,  its 
southern  close  to  the  Mexican  boundary,  in  San  Diego  county,  Cali- 
fornia. Its  range  east  and  west  is  restricted.  It  has  a  width  of  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  California,  where  it  grows  from  the  coast 
to  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  An  altitude  of  5,600 
feet  appears  to  be  the  limit  of  its  range  upward.  It  attains  altitudes 
above  5,000  feet  at  several  points  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range.  It 
descends  nearly  to  sea  level.  Its  geographical  range  is  similar  to  the 
ranges  of  several  other  Pacific  coast  species  which  occupy  long  ribbons 
of  territory  stretching  north  and  south  parallel  with  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  ocean. 

This  maple's  leaves  change  to  a  clear  reddish-yellow  before  falling. 
Flowers  appear  after  the  leaves  are  grown,  and  the  seeds  ripen  late  in 
autumn.  Some  of  them  hang  until  late  in  winter,  but  the  habit  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  range,  as  is  natural  in  view  of  its  great  extension 
north  and  south.  The  trees  which  stand  in  open  ground  are  very  abun- 
dant seeders,  but  those  in  dense  stands  produce  sparingly,  in  that  par- 
ticular following  the  habit  of  most  trees.  This  maple  often  grows  in 
dense,  nearly  pm-e  stands  in  Oregon  and  Washington  where  soil  and 
other  conditions  are  favorable. 

The  sizes  and  forms  of  Oregon  maple  vary  greatly.  John  Muir 
spoke  of  forests  whose  trees  were  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet  high,  so 


440  American  Forest  Trees 

dense  with  leaves  and  so  abundantly  supplied  with  branches  that  moss 
and  ferns  formed  a  canopy  with  foliage  and  limbs  high  over  head,  like  an 
aerial  garden;  while  George  B.  Sud worth  described  it  in  certain  situa- 
tions as  a  short-stemmed,  crooked  tree  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet 
high  and  under  a  foot  in  diameter. 

This  maple  has  been  called  the  most  valuable  hardwood  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  but  that  claim  is  made  also  for  other  trees.  Some  persons 
rate  it  with  the  hard  maple  of  the  East,  in  properties  which  commend  it 
for  use.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  claim  can  be  substantiated.  According  to 
Sargent's  figures  for  strength,  stiffness,  weight,  and  fuel  value,  it  lacks 
much  of  equalling  the  eastern  tree.  It  is  twelve  pounds  per  cubic  foot 
lighter;  has  not  three-fourths  the  fuel  value;  and  is  little  more  than  half 
as  strong  or  as  stiff.  The  comparison  is  more  in  favor  of  the  western 
tree  when  color  of  wood  and  appearance  of  grain  are  considered.  The 
wood  is  light  brown  with  pale  tint  of  red.  The  rings  of  annual  growth 
are  tolerably  distinct,  with  a  thin,  dark  line  separating  the  summerwood 
of  one  year  from  the  springwood  of  the  next.  The  pores  are  scattered 
with  fair  evenness  in  all  parts  of  the  ring.  They  are  small  and  numerous. 
The  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  abundant.  In  quarter-sawed  wood 
they  show  much  the  same  as  in  hard  maple,  but  are  rather  darker  in 
color.  The  mirrors  are  decidedly  tinged  with  brown.  The  wood  is 
reported  poor  in  resisting  decay  when  in  contact  with  the  soil. 

The  largest  use  of  Oregon  maple  appears  to  be  for  furnitiure,  second, 
for  interior  finish,  and  following  these  are  numerous  miscellaneous 
uses.  Statistics  of  the  cut  of  this  wood,  as  shown  by  sawmill  reports, 
are  unsatisfactory.  Census  returns  include  it  with  all  other  maples  of 
the  country,  without  figures  for  species.  The  cut  of  maple  for  all  the 
western  states  seems  too  small  to  give  this  wood  justice.  The  amount 
reported  used  in  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  exceeds  the  total 
reported  sawmill  cut  in  the  West. 

Oregon  maple  is  an  important  handlewood.  The  smooth  grain 
appeals  to  broom  makers.  The  wood  is  made  into  ax  handles,  but  for 
that  use  it  is  much  below  hickory,  or  even  hard  maple  or  white  oak.  It 
is  converted  into  pulleys  in  Washington,  also  into  saddle  trees,  and  tent 
toggles.  Boat  makers  employ  it  for  finish  material,  in  which  capacity  it 
fills  the  same  place,  and  must  meet  the  same  requirements  as  in  interior 
finish  for  houses.  Curly  or  wavy  wood  is  occasionally  found  and  this  is 
worked  into  finish  and  also  into  furniture.  The  figure  is  as  handsome 
as  in  eastern  maple,  but  birdseye  is  less  frequent.  Counter  tops  for 
stores  and  bar  tops  for  saloons  are  sometimes  made  of  figiured  maple.  It 
is  seen  also  in  grill  work  and  show  cases,  but  in  order  to  show  the  figured 
wood  to  the  best  advantage  it  should  be  worked  in  flat  surfaces. 


American  Forest  Trees  441 

Oregon  maple  is  converted  into  flooring  of  the  ordinary  tongued 
and  grooved  kind,  and  also  into  parquet  flooring.  Rotary  veneers  are 
made  into  boxes  and  baskets.  Solid  logs  are  turned  for  rollers  of  various 
sizes  and  kinds.  Mill  yards  use  them  for  ofi'bearing  lumber,  and  house 
movers  find  them  about  the  best  local  material  to  be  had.  This  maple 
has  been  successfully  stained  in  imitation  of  mahogany,  and  is  said  to 
pass  satisfactory  tests  where  the  color  is  the  principal  consideration 

The  amount  of  this  species  available  in  the  Northwest  is  not  defi- 
nitely known,  but  it  is  a  relatively  scarce  wood.  No  attention  has  ever 
been  given  to  planting  it  as  a  commercial  proposition.  It  is  not  of  very 
rapid  growth,  and  imless  it  is  in  dense  stands,  it  develops  a  short  trunk 
and  large  crown.  It  is  better  suited  for  shade  and  ornament,  and  is  to  be 
seen  as  a  street  tree  in  some  western  towns.  It  does  not  flourish  in  the 
eastern  states,  but  has  found  the  climate  of  western  Europe  more  con- 
genial and  is  occasionally  found  as  an  ornamental  tree  there. 

The  relative  importance  of  this  maple  in  the  state  of  Washington  is 
indicated  by  the  amount  used  annually  compared  with  certain  other 
hardwoods.  In  1911  the  consumption  of  willow  was  2,000  feet,  vine 
maple  10,000,  Oregon  ash  58,000,  Oregon  oak  197,000,  western  birch 
315,000,  Oregon  maple  932,500,  red  alder  1,881,500,  and  black  cotton- 
wood  32,572,200. 

Vine  Maple  (Acer  circinahim)  is  sometimes  called  mountain 
maple,  though  the  name  is  misleading.  It  may  grow  among  mountains, 
but  always  near  streams.  It  is  found  at  various  altitudes  from  near  sea 
level  to  5,000  feet  above.  It  ranges  from  the  coast  region  of  British 
Colmnbia  southward  through  Washington  and  Oregon  to  Mendocino 
county,  California.  This  tree  is  more  useful  than  might  be  inferred  from 
its  name,  or  even  from  a  study  of  it  in  its  usual  form.  Only  an  occasional 
tree  is  good  for  the  wood  user.  A  height  of  twenty  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  six  inches  are  above  the  average.  It  is  called  vine  maple  because  of 
its  habit  of  sprawling  on  the  ground  like  a  vine.  The  trunk  lacks 
sufiicient  stiffness  to  hold  it  erect.  It  grows  upward  to  a  certain  point, 
then  leans  over  and  the  branches  lie  on  the  ground.  Some  of  them  take 
root  and  in  coiu-se  of  time  what  was  first  a  single  stem  becomes  a  thicket 
of  branches  and  stems.  The  winter  snow  often  has  much  to  do  with 
bending  the  tnmk,  which  appears  to  have  no  power  to  get  back  to  the 
perpendicular  when  once  bowed  down.  The  damp  situation  where  this 
tree  thrives  best,  induces  a  luxuriant  growth  of  moss  and  mold  which 
help  to  bury  the  branches  that  lie  on  the  ground. 

The  tree  prospers  in  deep  shade.  The  young  leaves  are  rose  red, 
and  in  the  fall  become  yellow  or  scarlet.  The  fruit  is  the  characteristic 
maple  key.      The  wing  becomes  rose-red  before  falling  in  autumn. 


442  American  Forest  Trees 

Though  this  tree  is  more  a  curiosity  than  a  lumberman's  asset,  it  is  not 
without  value.  Handle  makers  use  10,000  feet  of  it  a  year  in  the 
state  of  Washington.  It  is  shaved  and  turned  for  ax  and  shovel 
handles.  It  has  two-thirds  the  strength  and  less  than  half  the  stiffness 
of  eastern  hard  maple.  The  tree  grows  slowly  and  the  annual  rings  are 
very  narrow  and  indistinct.  Seventy  or  eighty  years  are  required  to 
produce  a  tnmk  five  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  checks 
badly  in  seasoning.  The  bark  is  very  pale  brown — suggesting  the  color 
of  a  potato  sprout  that  has  grown  in  a  dark  cellar.  The  Indians  liked 
the  wood  for  fish  net  bows,  though  there  appears  to  have  been  no  very 
good  reason  why  they  preferred  it  to  other  woods  of  the  region.  Its 
most  extensive  use  at  present  is  as  fuel,  but  it  is  not  particularly  sought 
after.  The  tree's  future  is  not  promising.  Under  domestication  it  does 
not  take  on  its  fantastic,  moldy,  moss-grown  form,  and  its  forest  growth 
will  never  be  encoiu-aged  by  lumbermen. 

Dwarf  Maple  (Acer  glabrum)  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  maples, 
but  in  a  north  and  south  direction  its  range  is  equal  to  that  of  any  other. 
Its  southern  limit  is  among  the  canyons  of  Arizona,  and  its  northern  on 
the  coast  of  Alaska  within  six  or  seven  degrees  of  the  Arctic  circle.  It 
extends  to  Nebraska,  and  is  found  east  of  the  continental  divide  far 
north  in  British  America.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  on  Vancouver 
island  and  on  the  Blue  mountains  in  Oregon.  It  here  is  large  enough  to 
make  small  sawlogs,  but  it  is  usually  shrubby  in  other  parts  of  its  range. 
It  grows  from  sea  level  in  Alaska  to  9,000  feet  altitude  among  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains  of  California.  Two  forms  of  leaf  occiur.  One  is 
three-lobed;  the  other  is  a  compound  leaf,  the  lobes  having  formed 
separate  leaves.  The  bright  upper  siu-face  of  the  leaf  gives  the  species 
its  botanical  name.  The  seeds  have  large,  wide  wings.  It  cannot  be 
ascertained  that  the  wood  of  this  maple  has  ever  been  used  for  anything. 


BOX  ELDER 


'^:.-4 

^fftl 

2SSS^|*;J;: 

•  i^ 

m^^ 

:'t^^fiv3;;wtey 

^ 

BOX  ELDER 

(Acer  Negutido) 

A'lTEMPTS  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  word  ^legundo  which 
botanists  apply  to  this  species  have  not  been  crowned  with  entire 
success.  It  is  known  to  be  a  word  in  the  Malayalam  language  of  the 
Malabar  coast  of  India,  and  is  there  applied  to  a  tree,  apparently  refer- 
ring to  a  peculiar  form  of  leaf.  The  name  was  transferred  to  the  box 
elder  by  Moench,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  by  botanists,  although 
at  least  seven  other  scientific  names  have  been  given  the  tree.  It  bears 
ten  or  more  English  names  in  different  regions.  Among  these  names  are 
ash-leaved  maple,  known  from  Massachusetts  to  Montana  and  Texas; 
cut-leaved  maple  in  Colorado;  three-leaved  maple  in  Pennsylvania; 
black  ash  in  Tennessee;  stinking  ash  in  South  Carolina;  sugar  ash  in 
Florida;  water  ash  in  the  Dakotas;  and  bo.K  elder  wherever  it  grows. 

The  tree's  geographical  range  does  not  fall  much  short  of  3,000,000 
square  miles,  and  is  equalled  by  few  species  of  this  country.  It  extends 
from  New  England  across  Canada  to  Alberta,  thence  to  Arizona,  and 
includes  practically  all  the  United  States  east  and  south  of  those  lines. 
Itthrives  in  hot  and  cold  climates, and  high  and  low  elevations;  in  regions 
of  much  rain,  and  in  those  with  little.  That  fact  has  been  turned  to 
account  by  tree  planters,  particularly  in  the  years  when  the  western 
plains  were  being  settled  by  homesteaders.  The  box  elder  was  the 
chief  tree  on  many  a  timber  claim  where  the  letter  of  the  law  rather  than 
the  spirit  was  carried  out.  It  afforded  the  earliest  protection  against 
scorching  summer  sun  and  the  keen  winds  of  winter  about  many  a 
frontiersman's  cabin  on  the  plains.  It  was  the  earliest  street  tree  in 
many  western  towns.  The  people  planted  it  because  they  knew  it 
would  grow,  and  they  were  not  so  sure  of  a  good  many  other  trees. 
Green  ash  was  often  its  companion  in  pioneer  plantings  on  the  plains. 
Many  towns  which  set  box  elders  along  the  streets  when  they  did  not 
know  of  anything  better,  still  have  the  trees,  though  they  would  willingly 
exchange  them  for  something  else.  They  are  not  ideal  street  and  park 
trees;  do  not  produce  shapely  trimJcs  and  crowns;  and  drop  leaves  all 
summer  and  seeds  all  winter.  The  tree  is  reputed  to  be  short  lived,  yet 
some  of  those  planted  a  generation  or  two  ago  show  no  symptoms  of 
decline. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  tree  should  be  called  an  elder, 
or  an  ash,  except  that  its  leaves  are  compound.  If  that  is  a  reason,  it 
might  be  called  a  hickory  or  a  walnut,  since  they  bear  compound  leaves. 
It  is  clearly  a  maple.     Its  fruit  shows  it  to  be  so,  and  Indians  of  the  far 


446  American  Forest  Trees 

Northwest  who  had  no  other  maple,  formerly  manufactured  sugar  from 
this  tree,  collecting  the  sap  in  wood  or  bark  troughs  and  boiling  it  with 
hot  stones. 

The  compound  leaf  does  not  necessarily  take  it  out  of  the  maple 
group.  It  requires  no  great  exercise  of  imagination  to  understand  how 
a  lobed  leaf,  by  deepening  the  sinuses  between  the  lobes,  might  become 
a  compound  leaf  in  the  process  of  evolution.  There  may  be  no  visible 
evidence  that  the  box  elder's  leaf  reached  its  present  form  by  that 
process,  but  there  is  another  maple  which  is  at  the  present  time  develop- 
ing a  compound  leaf  in  that  way,  or  seems  to  be  doing  so.  It  is  the 
dwarf  maple  (Acer  glabrum)  of  the  Northwest  coast.  Lobed  leaves 
and  compound  leaves  may  occur  on  the  same  tree. 

The  seeds  of  box  elder  resemble  those  of  other  maples.  They  ripen 
in  the  fall,  and  are  blown  off  by  wind,  few  at  a  time,  during  several 
months.  The  trees  are  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet  high,  and  from  one 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  The  trunk  is  apt  to  divide  near  the 
ground  in  several  large  branches,  and  is  not  of  good  form  for  sawlogs, 
being  often  crooked  as  well  as  short.  The  small  branches,  particularly 
those  less  than  a  year  old,  are  usually  nearly  as  green  as  the  leaves. 
This  fact  may  assist  in  identifying  the  tree  when  the  leaves  are  off.  The 
bark  bears  more  resemblance  to  ash  and  basswood  than  to  maple. 

The  wood  is  lightest  of  the  maples.  It  weighs  less  than  twenty- 
seven  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot ;  has  less  than  half  the  strength  and  about 
forty  per  cent  of  the  stiffness  of  sugar  maple ;  and  is  much  inferior  to  it  in 
most  mechanical  properties.  It  is  equal,  if  not  superior  to  most  maples 
in  whiteness.  The  pores  are  small,  numerous,  and  scattered  through 
all  parts  of  the  growth  ring,  as  is  characteristic  of  maple  wood.  The 
tree  grows  rapidly.  The  summerwood  is  a  thin,  dark  line,  separating 
one  annual  ring  from  another.  The  medullary  rays  are  many  and 
obscure,  but  when  wood  is  sawed  or  split  along  a  radial  line,  they  are 
easily  seen,  and  show  the  true  maple  luster. 

The  uses  of  box  elder  are  similar  to  those  of  soft  maple.  The  wood 
is  seldom  reported  under  its  own  name.  In  fact,  an  examination  of  wood- 
using  reports  of  various  states,  shows  that  in  only  two  states,  Michigan 
and  Texas,  has  box  elder  been  listed  separately.  Its  uses  in  the  former 
state  were  for  bo.xes,  crates,  flooring,  handles,  woodenware,  and  interior 
finish,  while  in  Texas  it  was  made  into  lurniture.  The  tree  is  of  com- 
mercial size  in  at  least  thirty  states,  and  is  cut  and  marketed  in  all  of 
them.  Tests  of  the  wood  for  pulp  are  said  to  be  satisfactory,  and  it  finds 
its  way  in  rather  large  amounts  to  cooper  shops  where  it  is  made  into 
slack  barrels.  It  is  cut  as  acid  wood  along  with  other  maples,  beech,  and 
birch,  and  is  converted  into  charcoal  and  other  products  of  distillation. 


American  Forest  Trees  447 

It  may  be  expected  that  box  elder  will  exist  in  the  United  States  as 
long  as  any  other  forest  tree  remains.  It  is  willing  to  be  crowded  off 
good  land  into  low  places,  which  are  almost  swamps,  and  there  it  grows 
free  from  disturbance;  but  if  given  the  opportunity  it  will  appropriate 
the  most  fertile  soil  within  reach  of  it;  and  by  scattering  seeds  during 
four  or  five  months  of  the  year,  it  manages  to  do  much  effective  planting. 

California  Box  Elder  (Acer  ncgundo  californicum)  is  a  variety  of  box  elder, 
and  not  a  separate  species.  As  the  name  implies,  it  is  a  California  tree,  and  it  occurs 
in  the  valleys  and  among  the  Coast  Range  mountains  from  the  lower  Sacramento 
valley  to  the  western  slopes  of  the  San  Bernardino  mountains.  The  tree  is  from 
twenty  to  fifty  feet  high  and  from  ten  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter.  The  leaves  and 
young  twigs  are  hairy,  in  that  respect  differing  from  the  eastern  box  elder.  The  seeds 
are  scattered  during  winter.  The  wood  is  very  pale  lemon-yellow  or  creamy-white, 
the  heart  and  sapwood  hardly  distinguishable.  The  wood  is  soft  and  brittle,  but  is 
suited  to  the  same  purposes  as  the  eastern  box  elder.  No  reports  of  its  uses  appear  to 
have  been  made.  It  is  found  on  the  borders  of  streams  and  in  the  bottoms  of 
moist  canyons.     It  is  believed  to  be  a  short-lived  tree. 

Striped  Maple  (Acer  pennsylvanicum)  is  usually  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and 
eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Its  range  extends  from  Quebec  to  northern  Georgia, 
westward  to  Minnesota,  and  is  of  largest  size  on  the  slopes  of  Big  Smoky  mountains 
of  Tennessee,  and  the  Blue  Ridge  in  North  and  South  Carolina.  It  grows  best  in 
shade,  but  maintains  itself  in  open  ground ;  is  generally  shrubby  in  the  northern  part 
of  its  range.  The  name  refers  to  the  bark.  The  stripes  are  longitudinal  and  are 
caused  by  the  parting  of  the  outer  bark  and  the  exposure  to  view  of  the  lighter  colored 
inner  layers.  The  bark  of  small  trees  is  greenish,  but  later  in  life  the  color  is  darker, 
and  the  stripes  largely  disappear.  Among  its  names  are  moosewood,  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  good  browse  for  moose  and  other  deer;  goosefoot  maple,  a  reference  to  the 
form  of  the  leaf;  whistlewood,  an  allusion  to  the  ease  with  which  the  bark  slips  from 
young  branches  in  spring  when  boys  with  jack-knives  are  on  the  search  for  whistle 
material.  The  names  mountain  alder  and  striped  dogwood  are  based  on  misunder- 
standing of  the  tree's  family  relations. 

The  young  leaves  are  rose  colored  when  they  unfold,  and  when  full  grown  are 
six  inches  wide.  The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  and  light  brown  in  color,  the  thick  sap- 
wood  lighter.  The  wood  is  liable  to  contain  small  brown  pith  flecks,  which  in  longi- 
tudinal sections  appear  as  brown  streaks  an  inch  or  less  in  length  and  as  thick  as  a  pin, 
and  in  cross  section  they  are  brown  dots.  They  are  not  natural  to  the  wood  but  are 
caused  by  the  larvae  of  certain  moths  which  burrow  into  the  cambium  layer,  or  soft 
inner  bark,  and  excavate  narrow  galleries  up  and  down  the  trunk.  The  galleries 
afterwards  fill  with  dark  material.  The  insects  sometimes  attack  other  maples,  the 
birches,  service,  and  other  trees.  The  wood  of  striped  maple  is  little  used,  because  of 
the  small  size  of  the  trees.  The  species  is  planted  for  ornament  in  this  country  and 
Europe. 

Black  Maple  (Acer  nigrum)  has  been  by  some  considered  a  variety  of  sugar  or 
hard  maple,  and  by  others  a  separate  species.  It  is  as  large  as  the  sugar  maple  and  its 
range  is  much  the  same,  but  it  is  more  abundant  in  the  western  part  of  its  range  than 
in  the  East.  The  name  refers  to  the  color  of  the  bark  of  old  trunks.  If  the  name  had 
considered  the  bark  of  young  twigs  it  would  have  been  yellow  or  orange  maple, 
because  the  twigs  are  of  that  color.  In  summer  the  peculiar  drooping  posture  of  the 
leaves  calls  attention  to  this  tree.     However,  the  bark,  twigs,  and  leaves  combined 


448 


American  Forest  Trees 


are  not  sufficient  to  set  it  apart,  in  the  eyes  of  most  people,  for  it  generally  passes 
without  question  as  sugar  maple,  even  when  it  stands  side  by  side  with  that  tree.  It 
yields  sugar  abundantly.  The  wood  is  a  little  heavier  than  that  of  sugar  maple,  but 
the  difference  cannot  be  noticed  except  when  the  two  woods  are  weighed.  Their  uses 
are  the  same.  No  maker  of  furniture,  flooring,  or  finish  ever  protests  against  black 
maple.  The  tree  generally  prefers  lower  and  damper  ground  than  sugar  maple,  and 
is  often  found  along  streams. 


SERVICEBERRY 


SERVICEBERRY 

{Amelanchicr  Canadensis) 

THIS  tree  will  never  be  other  than  a  minor  species  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  not  a  worthless  member  of  the  forest.  It  belongs 
to  the  rose  famil)',  and  therefore  is  near  akin  to  the  haws,  thorns,  and 
crabapples.  The  genus  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  as  well  as 
in  the  United  States.  Two  tree  species  occur  in  this  country,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  botanists,  three,  one  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  two 
east. 

The  serviceberry  has  a  number  of  names :  June  berry,  service-tree, 
May  cherry,  Indian  cherry,  wild  Indian  pear,  currant  tree,  shadberry, 
savice,  and  sarvice.  The  northern  limit  of  its  range  is  in  Newfoundland, 
the  southern  in  Florida.  It  grows  westward  to  Minnesota  and  Arkansas ; 
but  it  is  not  plentiful  except  in  certain  restricted  localities.  It  is  most 
abundant  among  the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  mountains,  and  of  its 
largest  size  toward  the  south.  It  is  dispersed  through  forests  generally, 
a  tree  or  bush  here  and  there;  but  it  prefers  the  borders  of  forests,  the 
brinks  of  cliffs,  banks  of  streams,  or  some  other  open  space  where  light 
is  abundant.  It  prospers  most  in  rich  soil  but  does  fairly  well  in  ground 
thin  and  dry. 

The  bloom,  where  it  occurs,  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  land- 
scape, though  generally  a  tree  on  ten  or  twenty  acres  represents  the 
density  of  its  stand.  The  white,  showy  bloom  comes  early  in  spring, 
when  most  trees  are  yet  bare  of  leaves.  Occasionally,  however,  the 
serviceberry  is  more  abundant,  and  the  rows  and  clumps  of  blooming 
trees  along  creek  banks  or  about  the  margins  of  glades  or  other  openings 
in  the  forests,  look  like  distant  snowdrifts. 

The  fruit  is  a  berry  a  half  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  bright  red  when 
fully  grown  in  early  summer,  and  changing  to  purple  when  ripe.  The 
seeds  are  brown  and  very  small,  and  each  berry  contains  from  five  to  ten. 
When  circumstances  are  favorable,  the  tree  is  a  prolific  bearer,  the  slen- 
der branches  bending  beneath  the  weight.  The  tree  need  not  reach  any 
particular  size  before  beginning  to  bear.  On  some  of  the  severely 
burned  summits  of  the  Alleghany  mountains  in  West  Virginia,  4,000  feet 
or  more  above  sea  level,  this  tree,  when  only  two  or  three  feet  high,  bears 
abundantly.  Such  trees  are  probably  sprouts  from  roots  of  older  trunks 
destroyed  by  fire.  At  its  best,  it  reaches  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  one  or  possibly  two  feet.  Trunks  of  largest  size  occur 
among  the  southern  Appalachian  ranges. 

The  wood  is  heavy  and  very  hard  and  strong.     It  is  liable  to  check 


452  American  Forest  Trees 

and  warp  in  seasoning,  is  satiny,  and  is  susceptible  of  a  good  polish. 
Medullary  rays  are  ver>'  numerous,  but  obscure ;  color,  dark  brown,  often 
tinged  with  red.  The  wood  is  stronger,  stiffer  and  heavier  than  white 
oak.  It  possesses  most  of  the  properties  to  make  it  a  wood  of  great 
value,  but  its  scarcity,  and  the  usual  small  size  of  the  trees,  relegate  it  to 
the  class  of  minor  woods.  Some  use  is  made  of  it  in  tiUTiery  and  for 
other  small  articles.  It  is  frequently  planted  in  gardens  for  its  bloom 
and  berries.  In  such  situations  it  lacks  some  of  the  charm  which  it 
holds  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  wildwoods  where  its  early  spring  bloom  is 
thrown  against  a  background  of  leafless  branches. 

Western  Serviceberry  (Amelanchicr  alnifolia)  is  also  called 
pigeonberry  and  sarvice.  Its  botanical  name  refers  to  the  resemblance 
of  its  leaves  to  those  of  alder.  Its  range  covers  a  million  square  miles, 
and  the  species  reaches  its  best  development  on  islands  and  rich  bottom 
lands  of  the  lower  Columbia  river.  It  is  found  as  far  south  as  California, 
north  to  Yukon  territory,  east  to  Lake  Superior  and  northern  Michigan. 
It  is  nowhere  a  tree  of  attractive  size,  and  is  usually  a  shrub  about  ten 
feet  tall  and  one  inch  thick.  Trees  are  sometimes  thirty  feet  high  and 
six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  fruit  is  blue-black  and  sweet,  and 
pleasant  to  the  taste  if  not  overripe.  Indians  in  the  northern  and 
western  range  of  this  tree  gather  the  berries  industriously  while  they  last, 
and  many  of  the  white  settlers  do  likewise.  The  birds  flock  to  the 
thickets  for  their  share,  and  though  the  berries  are  small,  the  bears  in  the 
region  consider  them  worthy  of  prompt  and  continued  attention. 
The  berries  are  generally  a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  ripen  in  July  or  August,  depending  on  latitude.  Cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  and  deer  find  this  small  tree  or  bush  a  source  of  food.  They  do 
not  object  to  eating  the  berries  when  obtainable,  but  theu"  principal 
attack  is  on  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots  which  afiford  excellent  browse. 
Fortunately,  the  serviceberry  is  so  tenacious  of  life  that  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  browse  it  to  death.  If  eaten  down  to  the  ground,  with 
little  left  but  bare  and  barked  trunks  sticking  up  like  bean  poles,  the 
roots  will  throw  up  sprouts  year  after  year,  making  the  service  thicket  a 
permanent  browse-pasture.  Fire  is  not  able  to  destroy  such  a  thicket, 
for,  when  the  tops  are  burned  off,  the  sprouts  will  quickly  spring  up 
with  vigor  unimpaired.  As  a  source  of  food  for  insects,  birds,  beasts, 
and  men,  few  trees,  in  proportion  to  size  and  quantity,  are  the  equal  of 
western  serviceberry.  Flowers,  fruit,  leaves  and  sprouts  are  all  food 
for  something. 

LoNGLEAF  Service  Tree  {Amelanchicr  obovalis)  is  by  some 
regarded  a  variety  rather  than  a  species.  It  occupies  in  part  the  same 
range  as  serviceberry,  but  runs  much  farther  north,  reaching  the  valley 


American  Forest  Trees  453 

of  Mackenzie  river  in  latitude  G5.  It  is  found  in  North  Carolina  and 
Alabama,  but  it  is  only  a  shrub  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  its 
range.  The  fruit  ripens  in  early  summer  and  is  reddish  purple.  Trees 
are  seldom  more  than  thirty  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter.  A 
variety  with  large  fruit  is  occasionally  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree. 
Unless  the  crop  of  ^erviceberries  is  unusually  plentiful  in  a  locality,  the 
most  of  it  is  eaten  by  birds  which  temporarily  abandon  nearly  all  other 
sources  of  food  and  give  their  undivided  attention  to  the  perishable 
harvest  which  must  be  garnered  in  at  once  or  it  will  be  lost. 

Narrowleaf  Crab  (Mains  angustijolia)  is  one  of  the  wild  crab- 
apples  of  the  United  States.  They  are  of  the  genus  Mains  and  the 
thousands  of  varieties  of  cultivated  apples  are  derived  from  them,  or 
from  other  species  found  in  the  old  world  which  are  very  similar.  They 
belong  to  the  rose  family.  The  narrowleaf  crab  is  found  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Florida  and  westward  to  Tennessee  and  Louisiana.  It  thrives 
best  in  open  spaces  in  the  forest  and  is  often  found  in  glades  and  along 
the  banks  of  streams  in  the  North,  while  in  the  South  it  occurs  in  de- 
pressions in  the  pine  barrens.  The  flowers  are  much  like  those  of  apple, 
very  fragrant,  and  in  color  are  white,  pink,  or  rose.  When  in  full 
bloom,  the  tree  is  a  beautiful  object,  and  its  odor  is  carried  long  distances. 
The  fruit  is  an  apple  in  all  respects  except  size  and  taste.  It  is  some- 
what flattened,  and  is  an  inch  or  less  across.  It  is  fragrant  when  fully 
ripe,  and  many  a  person  has  been  led  by  appearances  to  taste,  only  to 
meet  disappointment.  The  flesh  is  hard  and  sour,  and  unfit  for  food 
in  its  natural  state,  but  by  cooking  and  artificial  sweetening,  it  is  made 
into  preserves.  The  tree  reaches  a  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  and 
a  diameter  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  It  is  smaller  than  the  sweet  crab. 
The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  with  thick  yellow 
sapwood.  It  is  not  put  to  many  uses,  but  is  occasionally  made  into 
small  handles,  and  levers.  It  has  been  much  used  as  stock  on  which 
to  graft  apples.  Farmers  who  wanted  orchards  formerly  dug  up  small 
crabapples  in  the  surrounding  woods  and  fields,  planted  them  in  an 
orchard,  and  when  securely  rooted,  the  apples  of  desired  kinds  were 
grafted  on.  If  successful,  the  apple  finally  replaced  the  crab  by  spread- 
ing its  own  bark  and  wood  over  the  entire  trunk,  until  no  part  of  the 
original  stock  remained  visible.  The  sweet  crab  was  also  employed  as  a 
stock  on  which  to  graft  apples. 

Sweet  Crab  (Mains  coronaria)  is  the  wild  crab  of  the  northeastern 
states,  although  it  intrudes  on  the  region  to  the  southwest  to  a  limited 
extent.  It  finds  use  in  ornamental  planting  in  the  region  of  best 
growth.  It  is  known  as  American  crab,  sweet  scented  crab,  crab  apple, 
wild  crab,  crab,  American  crab  apple,  and  fragrant  crab.     Its  range 


454  American  Forest  Trees 

extends  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  in  Canada,  south  through  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania,  along  the  Alleghany  mountains  to  Alabama; 
west  to  Minnesota,  eastern  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  and  eastern 
Texas.  It  needs  moist  soil  for  good  growth  and  the  best  types  are 
found  in  the  lower  Ohio  basin.  In  height  this  tree  rarely  exceeds 
thirty  feet  and  it  is  bushy,  having  short  rigid  limbs.  The  leaves  are 
rounded  and  sharply  toothed,  the  blossoms  generally  white  and  very 
fragrant;  the  fruit  small,  dry,  yellow,  tinged  with  red.  The  wood  is 
heavy,  not  strong,  heart  light  red,  sapwood  yellow.  It  is  used  for  tool 
handles,  small  turned  articles,  and  for  carving  and  engraving. 

Oregon  Crabapple  (Malus  rivularis)  grows  wild  from  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  Alaska,  southward  to  central  California,  and  is  of 
largest  size  in  Washington  and  Oregon  where  trees  are  occasionally 
forty  feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  but  they  are  generally 
about  ten  feet  high  and  form  dense  thickets.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  ripens 
late  in  autumn,  is  greenish,  or  reddish,  or  clear  lemon  yellow  in  color, 
and  rather  pleasant  to  the  taste.  The  tree  grows  slowly,  the  wood  is 
hard,  and  light  reddish-brown  in  color,  and  is  suitable  for  tool  handles. 

Iowa  Crab  {Malus  ioensis)  grows  from  Minnesota  to  Texas  and  is 
the  common  crabapple  of  the  Mississippi  basin.  Large  trees  are  twenty- 
five  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  It  is  believed  that  this  tree  crosses 
with  the  common  apple,  and  produces  a  variety  known  as  the  soulard 
apple  {Malus  soulardi).  Wild  apple  {Malus  malus)  is  a  Eiu-opean 
species  introduced  into  this  country  and  now  rurming  wild. 

Mountain  Ash  {Pyrus  americana)  is  closely  related  to  the  crabs.  It  occurs 
from  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  and  southward  along  the  mountains  to  North 
Carolina.  Trees  have  compound  leaves,  red  berries  the  size  of  small  cherries,  and 
reach  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more.  There  are  several  forms 
or  varieties,  among  them  the  small  fruit  mountain  ash  {Pyrus  americana  microcarpa) 
of  the  Alleghany  mountains. 


RED  HAW 

(Crakegus  Coccirwa) 

THIS  tree  belongs  to  the  rose  family,  and  the  genus  Cratmgus  consists 
of  a  large  group  of  small,  thorny  trees,  scattered  through  many 
parts  of  the  world.  They  are  known  by  their  thorns,  but  comparatively 
few  of  them  are  known  by  name  to  the  ordinary  observer,  and  they 
afford  a  perpetual  source  of  study,  victory,  and  bewilderment  to  the 
trained  botanist.  "No  other  group  of  American  trees,"  says  Sudworth, 
"presents  such  almost  insurmountable  difficulties  in  point  of  distinctive 
characters.  It  is  impossible,  and  fortunately  unnecessary,  for  the 
practical  forester  to  know  them  all,  and  exceedingly  difficult  even  for 
the  specialist."  More  than  one  hundred  species  of  these  thorn  trees 
occur  in  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  shrubs.  Their  bloom  resembles 
that  of  apple  and  pear  trees.  Bees  and  insects  swarm  round  the 
flowering  trees,  assisting  in  cross  fertilization.  The  various  species  are 
aggressive.  They  force  their  way  into  vacant  spaces,  and  their  thorns 
protect  them  against  browsing  animals.  The  wood  is  sappy  and  heavy, 
and  for  most  of  the  species  it  is  valueless.  The  growing  brambles, 
however,  perform  an  important  service  in  forest  economy.  Seeds  of 
various  valuable  trees  are  blown  by  wind  or  carried  by  birds  and  mam- 
mals into  the  thickets  where  they  germinate  and  get  a  start  under  the 
protecting  shelter  of  the  thorns.  Finally  the  seedlings  overtop  the 
brambles,  gain  the  mastery,  shade  the  thorns  to  death,  and  develop 
valuable  forests.  The  thorn  trees  shed  their  leaves  aimually.  Their 
seeds  are  slow  to  germinate,  some  not  sprouting  until  the  second  year. 
The  fruit  is  worthless  for  human  consumption,  but  some  of  it  has  a  tart 
and  not  unpleasant  taste.  It  is  of  many  colors  and  sizes,  depending 
on  species. 

No  attempt  is  here  made  to  name  or  to  list  the  species.  Such  a 
list  would,  for  most  people,  be  a  dull  catalogue  of  names,  and  many  of 
them  in  Latin  because  there  are  no  English  equivalents.  A  few  repre- 
sentative species  are  given.  The  red  haw,  though  not  the  most  abun- 
dant, is  widely  distributed,  and  is  probably  as  well  known  as  any.  Its 
range  extends  from  Newfotmdland  westward  through  southern 
Canada  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  thence  south  to 
Texas  and  Florida.  It  covers  one-half  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
northern  part  of  its  range  the  red  haw  is  confined  to  the  slopes  of  low 
hills  and  along  water  coinses,  but  south  in  the  Appalachian  mountains 
it  grows  at  an  elevation  of  several  thousand  feet. 

It  has  various  names  in  different  regions.     It  is  called  scarlet  haw, 


458  American  Forest  Trees 

red  haw,  white  thorn,  scarlet  thorn,  scarlet-fruited  thorn,  red  thorn, 
thorn,  thorn  bush,  thorn  apple,  and  hedge  thorn.  The  fact  is  worthy 
oi  note  that  it  is  well  known  and  is  clearly  recognized  in  every  region 
where  it  grows,  though  various  names  are  given  it. 

The  red  haw  never  reaches  large  size.  In  rare  cases  it  may  attain 
a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  ten  inches,  but  it  is  usually  less 
than  half  that  size.  Where  it  grows  in  the  open  it  develops  a  round 
crown.  The  branches  are  armed  with  chestnut-brown  thorns  from  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  The  bright  scarlet  color  of  the  fruit 
gives  name  to  the  tree.  It  ripens  late  in  September  or  in  October,  and 
at  that  time  the  tree  presents  a  beautiful  appearance.  The  branches 
frequently  remain  laden  with  fruit  after  the  leaves  have  fallen. 

The  wood  of  red  haw  is  of  a  high  character  and  but  for  its  scarcity 
would  have  wide  commercial  use.  It  is  among  the  heavy  woods  of  this 
country.  A  cubic  foot  of  it,  thoroughly  seasoned,  weighs  53.71  pounds. 
The  tree  is  of  slow  growth  and  therefore  the  annual  rings  are  narrow,  and 
the  wood  is  dense.  The  evenness  and  uniformity  of  the  rings  of  yearly 
growth  make  the  wood  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  The  medullary 
rays  are  very  obscure  in  red  haw,  and  for  that  reason  the  appearance  of 
the  wood  is  much  the  same,  irrespective  of  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
cut.  In  that  respect  it  is  similar  to  the  wood  of  most  members  of  the 
thorn  family — usually  being  too  small  to  be  quarter-sawed.  However, 
even  if  the  trees  were  large  enough,  quarter-sawing  would  bring  out  little 
figure. 

Red  haw  is  a  lathe  wood.  It  is  well  suited  to  some  other  purposes, 
and  has  been  used  for  engraving  blocks,  small  wedges,  and  rulers,  but 
the  best  results  come  from  the  lathe.  If  it  is  thoroughly  seasoned  it  is 
not  liable  to  crack  or  check,  though  cut  thin  in  such  articles  as  goblets 
and  napkin  rings.  The  turner  sometimes  objects  to  the  wood  because 
of  its  hardness  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  dulls  tools.  This  draw- 
back, however,  is  compensated  for  by  the  smoothness  and  fine  polish 
which  may  be  given  to  the  finished  article.  Red  haw  checker  pieces 
have  been  compared  with  ebony  for  wearing  quality.  In  color  the 
ebony  is  more  handsome,  and  on  that  account  is  generally  preferred. 

Perhaps  the  most  extensive  use  of  red  haw  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
canes.  Most  of  the  species  of  thorn  are  suitable  for  that  purpose  on 
account  of  their  weight,  strength,  and  hardness.  Red  haw  is  not  special- 
ly preferred,  but  is  used  with  others.  As  a  source  of  wood  supply,  the 
tree  will  never  be  important,  but  as  an  adornment  to  the  landscape  it 
will  always  be  valuable,  and  at  the  same  time  will  fill  a  minor  place  in 
the  country's  list  of  commercial  woods. 

Summer  Haw   (Cratmgus  ccstivalis)  is  a  southern  species  which 


American  Forest  Trees  459 

contributes  more  or  less  to  the  food  supply  of  the  people  within  its  range. 
It  is  known  also  as  May  haw  and  apple  haw.  The  flowers  appear  in 
February  and  March,  are  about  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  flushed  with 
red  toward  the  apex.  The  fruit  ripens  in  May,  is  bright  red,  very  frag- 
rant, and  is  from  half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  flesh 
is  of  a  pleasant  taste,  and  is  gathered  in  large  quantities  by  country 
people  for  making  preserves  and  jelly.  It  is  sold  in  town  and  city 
markets,  particularly  in  New  Orleans.  The  range  of  this  thorn  tree  is 
from  South  Carolina  and  Florida,  to  Texas.  It  attains  a  height  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet,  and  a  diameter  sometimes  as  great  as  eighteen 
inches.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  in  Louisiana  and  Texas.  It  grows 
well  on  land  which  may  be  submerged  several  weeks  in  winter.  The 
wood  has  not  been  reported  for  any  use. 

CocKSPUR  {Craiccgns  crus-galli)  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  more 
than  twenty  species  of  cockspur  thorns  growing  in  this  country.  Its 
other  names  are  red  haw,  Newcastle  thorn,  thorn  apple,  thorn  bush, 
pin  thorn,  haw,  and  hawthorn.  It  grows  southwestward  from  Canada 
to  Texas,  and  extends  into  Florida.  The  largest  trees  are  twenty-five 
feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  fruit  is  dull  red,  half  inch  in 
diameter,  ripens  in  September  and  October,  and  hangs  on  the  branches 
until  late  winter.  Hogs  eat  the  fruit  when  they  can  get  it,  and  boys 
utilize  the  small  apples  as  bullets  for  elder  pop  guns.  The  thorns  are 
formidable  slender  spines  from  three  to  eight  inches  long,  strong,  and 
extremely  sharp.  They  were  formerly  used  as  pins  to  close  wool  sacks 
in  nrral  carding  mills.  The  many  species  of  cockspur  thorns  are  multi- 
plied by  numerous  varieties.  Fence  posts  and  fuel  are  cut  from  the 
best  trunks. 

Pear  Haw  {Cratcegus  tomentosa)  is  a  representative  of  at  least  ten 
species.  It  is  called  pear  haw  without  any  very  satisfactory  reason,  since 
the  fruit  bears  little  resemblance  to  pears.  It  is  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
dull  orange  red  in  color,  and  sweet  to  the  taste,  but  it  is  of  little  value  as 
food.  The  tree  has  been  occasionally  planted  for  ornament,  but  never 
for  fruit.  The  flowers  are  showy.  Trees  at  their  best  are  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  high  and  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter.  They  have  few 
thorns  and  such  as  they  have  are  small.  The  tree's  range  extends  from 
New  York  to  Missoiu-i,  and  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  northern 
Georgia,  and  west  to  Texas  and  Arkansas.  It  is  known  in  different  parts 
of  its  range  as  black  thorn,  red  haw,  pear  thorn,  white  thorn,  common 
thorn,  hawthorn,  thorn  apple,  and  thorn  plum. 

Hog  Haw  {Cratmgus  brachyacantha)  is  distinguished  by  its  blue 
fruit.  The  name  indicates  that  the  fruit  is  unfit  for  human  food  but  is 
eaten  by  swine.     In  some  parts  of  Louisiana  the  dense  thickets  produce 


460  American  Forest  Trees 

considerable  quantities  of  forage  for  hogs.  The  range  is  not  extensive, 
being  confined  to  Louisiana  and  eastern  Texas  where  the  tree  occurs  in 
low,  wet  prairies.  The  largest  specimens  are  forty  or  fifty  feet  high  and 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  thorns,  and 
the  best  trunks  are  of  size  to  make  small,  very  short  sawlogs,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  wood  has  ever  been  manufactured  into  commodities 
of  any  kind.     The  tree  is  occasionally  planted  for  ornament. 

Black  Haw  (Cratcngus  douglasii)  reaches  its  best  development  on 
the  Pacific  coast  where  trees  occur  thirty  or  more  feet  in  height  and  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  principal  range  is  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  from  British  Columbia  to  northern  California,  but  it  extends 
eastward  to  Wyoming,  and  the  tree  is  found  also  in  northern  Michigan. 
The  fruit  is  black  or  very  dark  purple,  is  edible,  and  matures  in  early 
autumn,  falling  soon  after.  The  heartwood  is  brownish-red.  No  use 
for  the  wood  has  been  found  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Washington  Haw  {Cratcegus  cordata),  also  known  as  Washington 
thorn,  Virginia  thorn,  heart-leaved  thorn,  and  red  haw,  grows  on  banks 
of  streams  from  the  valley  of  the  upper  Potomac  river  southward  through 
the  Appalachian  ranges  to  northern  Georgia,  and  westward  to  Missouri 
and  Arkansas.  Flowers  are  rose-colored,  the  fruit  ripens  in  the  fall  and 
hangs  till  late  winter.  Trees  are  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  and  a  foot  or 
less  in  diameter.  Washington  haw  is  frequently  planted  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe. 

English  Hawthorn  {Cratcegus  oxyacantha)  was  introduced  into 
this  country  from  Evu-ope  and  has  become  naturalized  in  some  of  the 
eastern  states.  Thirty  or  more  varieties  are  distinguished  in  cultivation. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  although  the  United  States  has  more  than  130 
species  of  thorn  trees  of  its  own,  with  varieties  so  numerous  that  no  one 
has  yet  named  or  counted  all  of  them,  a  foreign  thorn  has  been  intro- 
duced and  added  to  the  number. 


MAHOGANY 


MAHOGANY 

(Swietenia  Mahagoni) 

THIS  tree  belongs  to  the  family  MeliacecB  which  has  about  forty 
genera,  all  of  which  are  confined  to  the  tropic  except  Swietenia  to 
which  mahogany  belongs.  This  tree  has  made  its  way  up  from  southern 
latitudes  and  has  secured  a  foothold  in  Florida  where  it  is  confined  to  the 
islands  and  the  most  southern  part  of  the  mainland. 

No  attempt  is  here  made  to  settle  or  even  to  take  part  in  the 
disputes  among  dendrologists  as  to  what  mahogany  is.  There  are  said 
to  be  more  than  forty  different  trees  which  pass  as  mahogany  in  lumber 
markets.  Various  descriptions  and  keys  have  been  published  for  the 
purpose  of  separating  and  identifying  different  woods  which  are  bought 
and  sold  as  mahogany.  These  woods  grow  on  every  continent  except 
Europe ;  but  those  which  pass  as  mahogany  nearly  all  dome  from  Africa 
or  America.  Some  are  well  known,  both  as  to  origin  and  botany,  while 
others  are  doubtful.  Logs  sometimes  appear  in  markets  and  no  one 
knows  where  thej^  come  from,  or  the  species  which  produce  them.  It  has 
been  maintained  that  annual  rings  will  separate  true  mahogany  from  the 
false — that  the  true  has  no  annual  rings.  At  the  best,  this  evidence  is 
only  negative  and  is  worth  little,  since  many  tropical  trees  show  no 
annual  rings,  and  yet  are  no  kin  to  mahogany.  Neither  is  it  certain  that 
true  mahogany  shovre  no  yearly  rings.  Some  trees  do  not,  but  others 
may.  The  ring,  as  is  well  known,  is  produced  because  the  tree  grows 
part  of  the  year  and  rests  part.  In  the  tropics  where  growth  is  con- 
tinuous, the  ring  may  not  exist,  but  it  sometimes  does  exist,  and  thus 
upsets  the  theory.  Besides,  it  proves  little  in  the  case  of  mahogany 
which  has  a  range  extending  from  south  of  the  equator  northward  into 
the  temperate  zone,  where  there  are  seasonal  changes.  It  also  grows 
near  sea  level  and  at  considerable  altitudes,  and  elevation  alone  might 
make  considerable  variation  in  the  character  of  the  wood. 

The  two  most  important  mahoganies  of  commerce — leaving  botany 
out  of  the  question — grow  in  Africa  and  in  America.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  African  mahoganies  is  Khaya  senegalensis,  and  of  the 
American  is  Swientetiia  mahagoni.  It  is  the  latter  which  extends  its 
range  into  the  United  States,  and  it  alone  will  be  considered  in  these 
pages  as  true  mahogany;  the  status  of  foreign  woods  which  pass  as 
mahogany  will  not  be  discussed. 

Leaves  of  the  mahogany  tree  are  three  or  four  inches  long,  and  an 
inch  or  more  wide.  They  are  compound,  with  from  three  to  five  pairs  of 
leaflets.     The  tree  is  an  evergreen  and  presents  a  fine  appearance.     The 


464  American  Forest  Trees 

flowers  appear  in  July  and  August,  are  small  and  cup-shaped.  Fruit  is 
four  or  five  inches  long  and  two  or  more  wide.  It  ripens  in  late  fall  or 
early  winter.  The  nearly  square  seeds  are  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long. 
In  Florida  the  tree  rarely  exceeds  fifty  feet  in  height  and  two  in  diameter; 
but  in  tropical  countries  it  may  exceed  a  height  of  100  and  a  diameter  of 
eight  or  ten.     The  bark  is  thin. 

The  wood  is  practically  of  the  same  weight  as  white  oak,  but  is 
stronger  and  more  elastic.  It  is  exceedingly  hard,  very  dm-able,  and  is 
susceptible  of  high  polish.  Medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  small  and 
obscure.  The  color  is  rich  reddish-brown,  turning  darker  with  age,  but 
the  thin  sapwood  is  yellow.  It  is  known  in  Florida  as  mahogany, 
madeira,  and  redwood. 

The  uses  of  mahogany  are  so  many  and  so  well-known  that  it  is 
unnecessary  to  speak  of  them  in  detail.  There  were  importations  into 
the  United  States  nearly  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  it  has  been  coming 
ever  since.  One  thing  about  this  wood  deserves  mention :  the  price  has 
not  varied  much  in  three  hundred  years.  Dift'erent  prices  have  prevailed, 
owing  to  distance  from  supply  and  differences  in  grade  and  quality; 
and  that  holds  true  today;  but  for  similar  grades,  the  prices  have  been 
remarkable  for  their  evenness. 

Florida  never  figured  largely  in  the  world's  supply  of  mahogany. 
At  their  best,  the  trees  were  neither  large  nor  numerous,  but  their  quality 
was  good.  Cutting  of  this  timber  ceased  in  Florida  about  three-quarters 
of  a  century  ago.  The  islands  and  the  small  area  of  the  mainland  where 
the  timber  grew,  were  stripped.  The  logs  were  shipped  to  the  Bahama 
islands  and  it  is  said  they  found  theur  ultimate  market  in  England.  A 
few  trees  were  overlooked  here  and  there,  and  some  that  were  small 
seventy-five  years  ago,  have  grown  to  merchantable  size  since.  These 
have  been  cut,  a  few  at  a  time,  and  the  cutting  is  still  going  on.  The 
total  is  now  only  a  few  thousand  feet  a  year,  and  one  of  the  markets  for 
the  logs,  probably  the  chief  market,  is  Miami,  Florida.  The  logs  are 
small,  and  are  generally  cut  and  brought  in  by  negroes  who  find  a  tree 
now  and  then,  cut  the  logs,  and  float  them  as  near  to  market  as  possible, 
and  haul  them  the  rest  of  the  way.  The  scarcity  of  the  trees  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  average  resident  of  south  Florida,  where 
the  range  of  the  mahogany  lies,  never  saw  one.  In  appearance  the  tree 
when  seen  at  a  little  distance,  resembles  a  young,  vigorous  black  walnut 
tree. 

China  Tree  (Melia  azedarach)  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
mahogany  but  is  of  a  different  genus.  It  is  not  native  in  the  United 
States,  but  has  been  extensively  planted  and  is  running  wild.  It  is  a 
forest  tree  in  some  parts  of  Louisiana,  but  is  found  under  pure  forest 


American  Forest  Trees  465 

conditions  only  here  and  there.  As  such,  the  trunk  and  thin  crown 
look  like  a  forest  grown  butternut  tree  in  Wisconsin.  It  is  abundant  in 
yards  and  along  streets,  where  it  is  often  called  Chinaball  tree.  A  little 
of  the  wood  is  used.  The  color  resembles  mahogany,  but  the  texture  is 
much  coarser.  Annual  rings  are  clearly  marked  by  rows  of  large  pores, 
and  the  wood  does  not  polish  well.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  pride  of 
India,  which  country  is  its  native  home,  or  it  was  carried  there  from 
Persia  at  an  early  date.  A  variety,  commonly  known  as  the  Texas 
Umbrella  tree  {Melia  azcdarach  umbracidi/era) ,  has  been  widely  planted, 
and  is  known  by  its  short  trunk  and  dense,  round  crown. 

SoAPBEERY  {Sapindus  saponaria),  known  also  as  false  dogwood,  is 
a  species  of  south  Florida,  and  is  one  of  three  soap  trees  in  this  country. 
It  has  no  family  kinship  with  mahogany,  but  the  appearance  of  the  trees 
leads  some  persons  to  conclude  that  they  are  related  to  the  China  tree. 
In  fact,  one  of  the  species  is  locally  known  as  wild  China  and  Chinaberry. 
They  are  called  soap  trees  because  their  fruit  has  a  property  which  causes 
water  to  foum,  and  the  natives  of  the  West  Indies  once  used  it  for  soap. 
The  botanical  name  Sapindus  means  "Indian  soap."  The  tree  is  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  feet  high,  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  The  bloom 
appears  in  November  in  Florida,  and  the  fruit  ripens  the  following 
spring.  The  wood  is  hea\^,  rather  hard,  and  is  light  brown,  tinged  with 
yellow.  It  reaches  largest  size  on  the  Thousand  Islands,  Florida. 
Another  species  is  Sapindus  marginatus  which  attains  size  similar  to  that 
of  the  first.  It  is  found  in  southern  Florida,  but  is  not  abundant.  It 
grows  as  far  north  as  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John  river.  A  third  species  is 
Sapindus  drummondi  which  has  its  range  from  western  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  southern  Kansas,  through  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona,  to  Mexico.  The  flowers  appear  in  May  and  June,  and  the  fruit 
ripens  in  September  and  October,  but  it  hangs  on  the  trees  until  the 
following  spring.  When  first  ripe,  it  is  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
yellow,  but  when  it  dries  it  turns  black.  Trees  attain  diameters  up  to 
two  feet,  and  heights  of  forty  or  fifty.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be 
the  Chinaberry,  by  persons  who  judge  by  general  appearances,  but  the 
two  are  not  related.  The  wood's  appearance  suggests  the  heartwood  of 
ash.  It  probably  reaches  its  best  development  in  Texas  where  it  is 
manufactured  into  boxes,  crates,  and  even  furniture,  but  not  in  large 
amounts.  It  is  reputed  to  be  a  rapid  grower,  and  it  may  be  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  but  it  is  usually  of  rather  slow  growth. 
The  wood  splits  readily  into  thin  strips  which  are  employed  in  making 
baskets  for  harvesting  cotton.  In  western  Texas  it  is  made  into  pack 
saddle  frames. 

Mountain  Mahogany  {Cercocarpus  ledifolius)  is  not  a  mahogany,  and  is  not 


466  American  Forest  Trees 

even  in  the  same  family.  It  belongs  to  the  rose  family,  and  is  closely  related  to  the 
crabapple;  but  since  it  is  commonly  known  as  mahogany,  it  is  proper  to  mention  it 
here.  Extensive  consideration  is  unnecessary,  for  the  tree  is  not  important  as  a 
source  of  wood.  Three  species  are  recognized  by  some  botanists,  four  by  others.  All 
are  western,  and  are  noted  for  their  long-tailed  fruit.  The  generic  name  refers  to  that 
feature.  The  seed,  with  its  tail,  is  carried  by  the  wind,  or  it  catches  in  the  wool  cf 
sheep  and  the  hair  of  cattle  and  goats,  or  the  feathers  of  birds,  and  is  carried  far  and 
near.  The  mountain  mahogany  sometimes  is  thirty  feet  high,  and  two  in  diameter. 
It  grows  from  5,000  to  9,000  feet  elevation,  sometimes  on  steep  cliffs.  Its  range 
extends  from  Wyoming  and  Montana  to  Oregon,  Cahfomia,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 
The  wood  is  bright,  clear  red,  or  rich  dark  brown.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  on  the 
mountains  of  central  Nevada.  Another  species  is  known  as  valley  mahogany 
{Cercocarpus  pannJoUus).  It  ranges  from  Nebraska  to  Oregon,  and  Texas  to  Cali- 
fornia. Its  rate  of  growth  is  very  slow,  and  it  seldom  exceeds  a  height  of  thirty  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  ten  inches.  The  wood  is  reddish-brown.  A  third  species,  called 
Trask  mahogany  (Cercocarpus  iraskicc)  is  chiefly  notable  on  account  of  its  restricted 
range.  It  occurs  as  far  as  known,  in  a  single  canyon  of  Santa  Catalina  island,  off  the 
southern  coast  of  California.  Some  of  the  specimens  are  twenty  feet  high  and  six 
inches  in  diameter.  A  fourth  species,  or  a  variety,  is  known  as  short-flower  mahogany 
(Cercocarpus  parvifolius  brcviflorus).  It  occurs  in  western  Texas,  southern  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  usually  at  elevations  about  5,000  feet  above  sea  level  where  the 
largest  trees  are  not  more  than  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty-five  feet  high. 

VAVQV'EiAtiii'iiVauquelinia  calif ornica)  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  so- 
called  western  mahoganies,  that  is,  the  rose  family ;  but  it  is  of  a  different  genus.  Its 
range  is  largely  south  of  the  international  boundary,  but  it  extends  into  southern 
Arizona  where  the  best  development  of  the  species  occurs  about  5,000  feet  above  the 
sea  on  grassy  slopes.  It  is  seldom  more  than  a  bush,  and  the  wood  is  very 
heavy  and  hard,  and  is  dark-brown,  streaked  with  red. 


BLACK  WILLOW 


^  ^^^HR^HJ 

m 

BlAlK     WlLl.dW 

BLACK  WILLOW 

(Salix  Nigra) 

THE  willows  and  the  cottonwoods  belong  to  the  same  family  of 
trees,  Salicaccce,  and  the  family  is  fairly  numerous,  and  it  has  some 
well-defined  traits  of  character.  The  quinine-bitter  of  the  bark  is  ever 
present,  but  more  marked  in  willows  than  in  cottonwoods.  Though 
quite  unpleasant  to  the  taste,  it  is  harmless.  The  leaves  never  grow  in 
pairs,  and  in  most  instances  they  fall  early  in  autumn,  and  some  without 
changing  color.  Male  and  female  flowers  are  borne  on  different  trees, 
and  fertilizing  is  done  by  insects,  often  by  honey  bees  and  bumblebees. 
Fruit  ripens  in  late  spring,  and  the  seeds  are  equipped  for  flight  by  being 
provided  with  exceedingly  fine  silky  hairs.  The  wind  carries  them  long 
distances.  The  trees  generally  grow  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  streams 
or  in  situations  where  the  soil  is  damp,  but  there  are  exceptions. 

The  willow  family  consists  of  two  genera,  one  the  cottonwoods  or 
poplars,  the  other  the  willows  proper.  There  are  about  seventy-five 
species  of  willow  in  America,  twenty  of  them  trees.  Some,  however, 
are  quite  small  and  only  occasionally  attain  sizes  which  place  them  in 
the  tree  class.  The  willows  are  old  residents  of  this  continent.  They 
grew  in  the  central  portion  of  what  is  now  the  United  States  in  the 
Cretaceous  age,  as  is  proved  by  their  leaf  prints  in  the  rocks.  They  have 
held  their  ground  ever  since,  and  there  is  no  likelihood  that  they  are 
about  to  give  it  up.  Few  species  are  better  fitted  for  holding  what  they 
have.  A  few  trees  are  capable  of  seeding  a  large  region  in  a  few  years, 
and  if  soil  and  situation  are  suitable,  reproduction  will  be  abundant. 
The  willows'  tenacity  of  life  is  often  remarkable.  It  sometimes  seems 
next  to  impossible  to  kill  them  by  cutting  off  their  tops.  There  are  said 
to  be  instances  in  Europe  where  willows  have  been  pollarded  successively 
during  hundreds  of  years,  the  crops  of  sprouts  being  used  for  wickerwork 
and  other  purposes.  No  such  records  exist  in  this  country,  but  the 
willow's  sprouting  habit  is  well  known.  A  shoot  stuck  in  the  ground 
will  grow,  and  a  fence  post  will  sprout.  Many  willows  develop  large 
stools,  or  roots,  and  repeatedly  send  up  numerous  sprouts,  and  it  makes 
little  difference  how  often  they  are  cut,  others  will  come  up. 

Comparatively  few  willows  that  start  in  life  ever  become  trees. 
They  are  suppressed  by  crowding,  or  meet  misfortunes  of  one  kind  or 
another  which  keep  them  small,  but  occasionally  a  tree  of  good  size 
results.  Willow  trees  are  usually  not  old.  Probably  few  reach  an  age 
exceeding  150  years.  Large  trunks,  in  old  age,  are  apt  to  be  hollow  or 
otherwise  defective,  though  a  willow  tree  will  live  many  years  after 


470  American  Forest  Trees 

much  of  its  trunk  has  disappeared.  A  Uttle  green  bark  on  the  side,  and 
sprouts  from  the  stump  will  maintain  life  long  after  all  usefulness  has 
ceased. 

Young  willows  are  usually  pliant  and  tough,  old  are  stiff  and 
brash.  They  range  from  sea  level  up  to  10,000  feet  or  more;  grow 
profusely  in  the  wet  lands  about  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  likewise  on  the 
bleak  coasts  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  Commander  Peary  found  willows 
blooming  in  considerable  profusion  on  the  extreme  northern  shore  of 
Greenland,  where  they  produce  enough  growth  during  the  few  weeks  of 
summer  sunshine  to  afford  the  muskox  the  means  of  eking  out  a  living 
during  his  sojourn  in  those  inhospitable  regions. 

The  identification  of  willows  is  one  of  the  most  difificult  tasks  that 
fall  to  the  botanists.  Black  willow  is  unquestionably  the  most  im- 
portant willow  in  this  country  from  the  lumberman's  standpoint.  It  is 
the  common  tree  willow  that  attains  size  suitable  for  sawlogs.  If  a 
forest  grown  willow  of  large  size  is  encountered  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  the  United  States,  it  is  pretty  safe  to  class  it  as  black  willow. 
There  are  some  others  which  grow  large,  but  not  many.  Planted 
willows,  both  large  and  small,  may  be  foreign  species,  and  white 
willows,  which  are  not  native  in  this  country,  but  have  been  widely 
planted,  and  are  running  wild,  may  be  occasionally  found  of  ample  size 
for  saw  timber. 

Black  willow's  range  extends  from  New  Brunswick  to  Florida, 
west  to  the  Dakotas,  and  south  to  Texas,  thence  passing  into  Mexico, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California.  It  attains  its  best  size  in  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  valleys,  though  large  trees  are  found  in  other  parts  of 
its  range.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  its  average  size  is,  for  some  black 
willows  are  only  a  few  feet  high  and  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter.  The 
largest  trees  exceed  100  feet  in  height  and  three  in  diameter.  An 
extreme  size  of  seven  feet  in  diameter  has  been  reported.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  see  willow  logs  three  feet  in  diameter  in  mill  yards  in  Louis- 
iana, Mississippi,  and  Arkansas,  and  logs  four  feet  in  diameter  are  not 
so  unusual  as  to  excite  much  comment.  The  average  sizes,  however, 
of  willow  sawlogs  in  that  region  are  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet. 

The  wood  of  black  willow  is  pale  reddish-brown.  When  freshly  cut 
it  is  sometimes  purple,  almost  black.  When  sawed  in  lumber  and 
exposed  to  the  air  the  dark  color  fades.  The  wood  is  soft  but  firm.  It 
has  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  strength  of  white  oak,  and  forty  per  cent 
of  its  stiffness.  It  weighs  27.77  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  and  considering 
its  weight,  it  is  tolerably  strong  and  stiff. 

Probably  no  other  wood  in  the  United  States  is  as  systematically 
cheated  out  of  its  just  credit  as  this  one.     Many  of  the  oaks  are  seldom 


American  Forest  Trees  471 

given  their  proper  names,  but  they  are  listed  as  oak  in  sawmill  output, 
and  thus  the  genus,  if  not  the  species  is  given  credit.  But  willow  is  al- 
most totally  ignored.  The  United  States  census  in  1910  credited  to  all 
the  willow  lumber  in  this  country  an  amount  less  than  a  million  and  a  half 
feet;  yet  a  single  mill  in  Louisiana,  and  not  a  large  mill  at  that,  cut  and 
sold  four  times  that  much  during  that  year.  The  wood  was  cut  by 
hundreds  of  other  mills,  some  a  few  logs  only,  others  considerable 
quantities. 

It  is  sold  for  various  purposes,  and  much  of  it  goes  as  cottonwood. 
In  some  instances  it  is  called  brown  cottonwood.  Probably  ninety  per 
cent  is  made  into  boxes,  but  it  has  many  other  uses.  It  is  cut  into 
excelsior,  made  into  rotary  cut  veneer,  and  finds  place  in  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture;  it  is  a  common  woodenware  material;  slack  coopers 
make  barrels  of  it;  and  it  is  tvuned  for  baseball  bats. 

The  supply  of  black  willow  in  this  country  is  not  small.  It  is 
usually  found  in  wet  situations  along  streams.  Sometimes  islands  and 
low  flats  are  taken  possession  of  and  pure  stands  result.  The  growth  is 
sometimes  phenomenal.  Trunks  may  add  nearly  or  quite  an  inch  to 
their  diameter  per  year  when  conditions  are  exceptionally  favorable. 
Instances,  apparently  well  authenticated,  are  reported  of  abandoned 
fields  along  the  Mississippi,  which  in  sixty  years  grew  100,000  feet  of 
willow  per  acre. 

LoNGSTAUK  Willow  (Salix  longipes)  sometimes  grows  to  a  height  of  thirty 
feet  with  a  diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Its  range  extends  from  Maryland  to 
Texas,  and  is  at  its  best  in  the  Ozark  region  of  southwestern  Missouri  and  north- 
western Arkansas. 

Almondleaf  Willow  {Salix  amygdaloides)  grows  across  northern  United 
States  and  southern  Canada  from  New  York  to  Oregon,  and  occurs  as  far  south  as 
Missouri  and  Ohio,  and  is  abundant  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley.  At  its  best  it  is  seventy 
feet  high  and  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and  the  heartwood  is 
brown. 

SmoothlEaF  Willow  {Salix  laevigata)  attains  a  diameter  of  one  foot  and  a 
height  of  forty  or  fifty.  It  is  a  Pacific  coast  tree,  occurring  in  California  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  up  to  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet.  It  is  known  as  black 
willow.     The  wood  is  pale  reddish-brown. 

SiLVERLEAF  Willow  (Salix  sessHifolia)  looks  like  longleaf  willow,  and  though 
usually  a  shrub  it  sometimes  is  twenty-five  feet  high  and  ten  inches  in  diameter. 
It  grows  from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river  to  southern  California. 

YewlEaf  Willow  {Salix  taxifolia)  ranges  from  western  Texas, '  through 
southern  Arizona  into  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Trees  are  occasionally  forty 
feet  high  and  more  than  one  foot  in  diameter.  A  little  fuel  and  fence  posts  are  cut 
from  this  willow. 

Bebb  Willow  {Salix  bebbiana)  is  nearly  always  shrubby,  but  occasionally 
reaches  a  trunk  diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches  and  a  height  of  twenty  feet.  Its 
northern  limit  lies  within  the  Arctic  circle,  its  southern  in  Pennsylvania,  Nebraska, 
and  Arizona.  West  of  Hudson  bay  it  forms  ahnost  impenetrable  thickets,  and  a 
Colorado  it  ascends  mountains  to  elevations  of  10,000  feet. 


472  American  Forest  Trees 

Glaucous  Willow  (Salix  discolor),  commonly  known  as  silver  or  pussy  willow, 
ranges  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Manitoba,  and  southward  to  Delaware,  West  Virginia 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri.  It  is  one  of  the  best  known  willows  within  its  range 
on  account  of  its  flowers  w  hich  are  among  the  earliest  of  the  season,  and  very  showy 
The  largest  specimens  are  scarcely  twenty-five  feet  high  and  twelve  inches  in  diameter. 

Mackenzie  Willow  {Salix  cordata  mackenzieana)  is  not  abundant,  and  is  ont 
of  the  smallest  of  the  tree  willows.  It  is  nearly  always  a  shrub.  Its  range  extends 
from  California  nearly  to  the  Arctic  circle,  where  it  occurs  in  gravelly  soil  on  the 
borders  of  mountain  streams. 

Missouri  Willow  {Salix  missouriensis)  is  so  named  because  it  occurs  princi- 
pally in  Missouri,  but  its  range  extends  into  Kansas  and  Iowa.  It  is  occasionally 
forty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.     It  is  used  for  fence  posts. 

BiGELOW  Willow  {Salix  laswlepis)  is  generally  called  white  willow  on  account 
of  its  gray  bark.  It  occurs  in  California  and  Arizona,  and  at  its  best  it  is  twenty-five 
feet  high  and  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Some  use  is  made  of  it  as  fuel,  where  other 
wood  is  scarce. 

NuTTALL  Willow  {Salix  nuliallii),  called  also  mountain  willow  in  Montana, 
ranges  from  British  America,  east  of  the  kocky  Mountains,  to  southern  California. 
Its  usual  height  is  twenty  or  twenty-five  feet,  and  its  diameter  six  or  eight  inches. 
In  southern  California  it  grows  10,000  feet  above  sea  level. 

Hooker  Willow  {Salix  hookeriatia)  occurs  in  the  coast  region  from  Vancouver 
island  to  southern  Oregon,  and  varies  in  height  from  a  sprawling  shrub  to  a  height  of 
thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  one.     Little  use  is  made  of  it. 

Silky  Willow  (Salix  sikhensis),  known  also  as  Sitka  willow,  ranges  from 
Alaska  to  southern  California.  The  largest  specimens  are  twenty-five  feet  high  and 
ten  inches  in  diameter.  Trunks  are  largely  sapwood  and  are  of  little  commercial 
importance. 

BroadlEaf  Willow  {Salix  amplifolia) ,  known  also  as  feltleaf  willow,  was 
discovered  in  Alaska  in  1899.  The  leaves  are  woolly.  The  largest  trees  rarely 
exceed  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  six  inches.  Its  range  extends  to  the 
valley  of  the  Mackenzie  river. 

A  number  of  foreign  willows  have  become  naturalized  in  the  United  States. 
Among  them  is  white  uillow-  {Salix  alba),  which  grows  to  large  size,  probably  as  large 
as  black  willow;  crack  willow  {Salix  fra%ilis),  so  named  on  account  of  the  brittleness 
of  its  twigs;  and  weeping  wijlow  {Salix  hahylonica) .  The  botanical  name  is  based  on 
the  supposition  that  it  was  this  willow,  growing  by  the  rivers  near  Babylon,  on  which 
the  captive  Hebrews  hung  their  harps.  Basket  willow  is  planted  for  its  osiers  in 
several  eastern  states.  It  is  not  a  single  species,  but  a  group  of  varieties  developed 
by  cultivation. 


HARDY  CATALPA 


HARDY  CATALPA 

(Catalpa  Speciosa) 

THIS  tree  belongs  to  the  family  BignoniacecB  which  has  its  name  from 
Abbe  Bignon,  librarian  of  Louis  XV.  About  one  hundred  genera 
belong  to  this  family,  only  three  of  which  reach  the  size  of  trees  in  the 
United  States.  These  include  the  catalpas,  the  desert  willow,  and  the 
black  calabash  tree. 

Seven  species  of  catalpa  are  known,  two  of  them  occurring  in  the 
United  States.  Others  are  found  in  China  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
name  is  an  Indian  word  and  was  first  heard  among  the  tribes  of  the 
Carolinas.  It  seems  probable  that  the  name  catalpa  as  applied  to  a  tree 
and  catawba,  applied  to  a  grape,  have  the  same  origin,  and  in  some  way 
refer  to  the  Catawba  Indians,  a  small  tribe — said  to  be  Sioux — that  lived 
twa  hundred  years  ago  in  the  western  part  of  the  Carolinas  and  neigh- 
boring regions  where  one  of  the  catalpa  species  was  first  heard  of  by 
Eiu-opeans.     The  tree  in  that  region  is  still  often  called  catawba. 

The  two  catalpas  of  this  country  are  known  to  botanists  as  Catalpa 
speciosa  and  Catalpa  catalpa.  Much  confusion  has  resulted  from  attempts 
to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  Botanists  are  able  to  dear  the 
matter  up  among  themselves,  but  the  general  public  has  not  been  so 
successful.  John  P.  Brown,  of  Connersville,  Indiana,  specialized  on 
catalpas  diu-ing  many  years,  and  published  numerous  tracts,  pamphlets, 
and  books  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  public  to  the  point  where  the 
differences  between  common  catalpa  and  hardy  catalpa  could  be 
distinguished.  His  labor  was  likewise  directed  toward  inducing  land 
owners  to  plant  catalpa  for  commercial  purposes.  Due  to  his  efforts, 
and  otherwise,  catalpa  was  for  a  time  the  most  advertised  plantation  tree 
in  this  country.  Some  supposed  that  hardy  catalpa  was  the  wood  which 
was  to  save  the  country  from  a  threatened  timber  famine.  Claims 
made  for  it  were  wide  and  far  reaching. 

The  judgment  of  history  has  been — if  it  may  be  classed  as  a  matter 
of  history — that  the  tree  fell  short  of  expectation.  This  does  not  imply 
an  inferiority  of  the  wood  itself,  or  a  slower  rate  of  growth  than  was 
claimed  for  it;  but  exceptional  cases  were  interpreted  as  averages,  and 
for  that  reason  the  whole  situation  was  overestimated.  When  all 
conditions  are  perfect,  hardy  catalpa  grows  rapidly  and  grows  large,  but 
it  demands  nearly  perfect  conditions  or  it  will  disappoint.  It  wants 
ground  rich  enough  and  damp  enough  to  grow  good  crops  of  corn,  and 
farmers  are  not  generally  willing  to  put  that  class  of  land  to  growing 
fence  posts  and  railroad  ties. 

475 


476  American  Forest  Trees 

The  range  of  hardy  catalpa  before  the  species  was  spread  by  arti- 
ficial planting,  was  through  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana,  southeastern 
Missouri  and  northeastern  Arkansas,  western  Louisiana  and  eastern 
Texas,  and  western  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Its  position  on  the  fertile 
banks  of  streams,  and  on  flood  plains  subject  to  frequent  inundation, 
indicates  that  the  spread  of  the  species  was  effected  by  running  water. 
In  that  case,  the  dispersal  of  seeds  would  be  down  stream,  implying  that 
the  starting  place  of  the  species  was  along  the  lower  reaches  of  the 
Wabash  river. 

The  catalpa  may  reach  a  height  of  100  or  120  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  four  feet ;  but  few  trees  attain  that  size.  The  leaves  are  ten  or  twelve 
inches  long  and  seven  or  eight  wide,  and  are  considerably  larger  than 
those  of  common  catalpa.  The  flowers  appear  late  in  May  or  early  in 
June,  and  are  showy.  The  prevailing  colors  are  white  and  purple,  and 
the  blossoms  are  about  two  inches  long  and  two  and  a  half  wide. 

The  fruit  is  a  pod  from  eight  to  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  enclosed 
seeds  are  nearly  an  inch  long,  shaped  like  beans.  The  trees  are  prolific 
bearers. 

The  tree  is  known  by  several  names  in  different  parts  of  its  range, 
including  the  territory  where  it  is  known  only  from  plantings.  It  is 
called  western  catalpa  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  species  found 
farther  east  and  south.  In  Missouri  and  Iowa  it  is  known  as  cigar  tree. 
The  name  Indian  bean  is  an  allusion  to  the  large  seeds.  Shawneewood 
is  another  name  referring  to  the  supposed  interest  of  Indians  in  the  tree. 
Shawnee  was  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  the  Ohio  valley  in  early 
times. 

The  wood  weighs  less  than  twenty-six  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is 
soft  and  weak.  It  is  rated  very  dm-able  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  chief  advantages  claimed  for  it.  The  annual  rings  are  clear- 
ly marked  by  several  bands  or  rows  of  large  open  ducts,  and  the  denser 
summerwood  forms  a  narrow  band.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous 
and  obscure.  The  heartwood  is  brown,  the  sapwood  lighter.  In  appear- 
ance, the  heartwood  suggests  butternut,  but  it  is  coarser,  and  lacks  the 
gloss  shown  by  polished  butternut.  Quarter-sawing  produces  no  figiu-e, 
but  when  sawed  at  right  angles  to  the  radial  lines,  the  annual  rings  are 
cut  in  a  way  to  give  figure  resembling  that  of  ash  or  chestnut. 

The  wood  of  this  catalpa  has  been  thoroughly  tried  out  for  a 
number  of  purposes.  Fiuniture  and  finish  have  been  made  of  it  with 
varying  success,  and  molding  and  picture  frames  are  listed  among  its 
uses.  It  is  not  a  sawlog  tree.  Statistics  of  lumber  cut  seldom  mention 
it,  though  now  and  then  a  log  finds  its  way  to  a  mill.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  pass  the  wood  as  mahogany,  but  with  poor  success.     The 


American  Forest  Trees  477 

counterfeit  is  easily  detected,  since  the  artificial  color  which  may  be 
imparted  to  catalpa  is  about  the  only  resemblarce  to  mahogany. 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  some  success,  but  on  a  very  small 
scale,  has  resulted  from  attempts  to  induce  catalpa  to  grow  in  crooks 
suitable  for  small  boat  knees.  The  young  trunk,  after  being  hacked  on 
one  side,  is  bent  and  induced  to  grow  the  crook  or  knee.  Natural  crooks 
have  been  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  knees  for  small  boats  in  Louisi- 
ana. 

Probably  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  catalpa  ever  cut  has  gone  into 
fence  posts.  It  is  habitually  crooked.  A  straight  bole  is  the  exception ; 
though  in  plantations  trees  are  crowded  and  pruned  until  they  grow 
fairly  straight,  and  sometimes  trunks  of  forest  grown  trees  of  large  size 
are  nearly  faultless  in  their  S3anmetry. 

It  was  once  believed  in  some  quarters  that  catalpa  would  solve  the 
railroad  tie  problem  by  growing  good  ties  quickly.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  in  spite  of  extensive  plantings,  the  railroad  tie  problem 
has  not  yet  been  solved  by  catalpa. 

Common  Catalpa  {Catalpa  catalpa)  originated  many  hundred  miles 
outside  the  range  of  hardy  catalpa,  to  judge  by  the  localities  in  which 
it  was  first  found  by  white  men.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
digenous in  southwestern  Georgia,  central  Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  and 
northwestern  Florida.  Its  range  has  been  greatly  extended  by  planting, 
and  it  grows  in  most  parts  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as 
far  north  as  New  England.  It  has  been  planted  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 
Its  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and  the  tree  itself  are  smaller  than  hardy 
catalpa.  The  pods  hang  imopened  all  winter.  The  trunks  sometimes 
are  three  feet  in  diameter  and  sixty  high,  but  are  generally  small, 
crooked,  rather  angular,  and  poor  in  appearance,  but  the  leaves  and 
flowers  are  ornamental.  The  wood  is  durable  in  contact  with  the  groimd, 
and  its  largest  use  has  been  for  posts,  crossties,  and  poles. 

Desert  Willow  {Chilopsis  linearis)  does  not  even  belong  to  the 
willow  family,  notwithstanding  its  names,  all  of  which  are  based  on  the 
presumption  that  it  is  a  willow.  The  shape  and  size  of  its  leaves  are 
responsible  for  that  misapprehension.  The  very  narrow  leaves  may  be 
a  foot  long.  It  is  called  flowering  willow  and  Texas  flowering  willow. 
Its  flowers  are  always  emphasized  when  it  is  compared  with  willow,  for 
they  are  totally  different  from  the  willow's  characteristic  catkins.  The 
flowers  appear  in  early  summer  in  racemes  three  or  four  inches  long,  and 
continue  open  during  several  months  in  succession.  The  fruit  is  a  pod 
seven  or  nine  inches  long,  and  as  slender  as  a  lead  pencil.  It  is  this  pod 
which  gives  the  plainest  hint  of  its  relationship  to  the  catalpas,  for  it 
is  in  good  standing  in  the  family  with  them.     The  seeds  resemble  very 


478  American  Forest  Trees 

small  beans  with  wings  at  each  end.       They  are  light,  and  the  wind 
disperses  them.     The  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder. 

The  range  of  this  small  tree  extends  across  western  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  into  San  Diego  county,  California.  The 
tree  occiu-s  in  dry,  gravelly,  porous  soil  near  the  banks  of  streams  and  in 
depressions  in  the  desert.  The  wood  is  weak  and  soft,  the  heart  brown, 
streaked  with  yellow.  No  use  has  been  found  for  it.  The  tree  is  culti- 
vated for  ornament  in  Mexico  and  sometimes  in  the  southern  states. 
The  flowers  look  well  when  they  are  encountered  in  the  desert.  They 
are  white,  faintly  tinged  with  purple,  with  bright  yellow  spots  inside. 
They  are  funnel  shaped  and  have  the  odor  of  violets. 


CUCUMBER 


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Cucumber 

CUCUMBER 

(Magnolia  Acuminata) 

THIS  tree  is  a  member  of  the  magnolia  family  which  has  ten  genera  in 
North  America,  two  of  them,  magnolia  and  liriodendron,  being 
trees.  The  family  has  its  name  from  Pierre  Magnol,  a  French  botanist 
who  died  in  1715.  The  genus  magnolia  has  seven  species  in  the  United 
States,  all  of  which  are  of  tree  size.  They  are  evergreen  magnolia 
(Magnolia  falida),  sweet  magnolia  (Magnolia  glaiica),  cucumber 
(Magnolia  acuminata),  largeleaf  umbrella  (Magnolia  macrophylla), 
umbrella  tree  (Magnolia  tripctala),  Fraser  upibrella  (Magnolia  frascri), 
and  pyramidal  magnolia  (Magnolia  pyramidata).  The  remaining 
member  of  the  magnolia  family  is  the  yellow  poplar  (Liriodendron 
iulipifera).  Though  of  the  same  family  it  is  of  a  different  genus  from 
the  seven  other  magnolias. 

The  cucumber  is  the  hardiest  member  of  the  magnolia  family.  It 
is  found  in  natural  growth  farther  north  than  any  other,  yet  it  has  the 
appearance  of  a  southern  tree.  All  magnolias  look  like  trees  belonging 
in  the  South.  Their  large  leaves  indicate  as  much,  and  some  of  them  do 
not  venture  far  outside  of  the  warm  latitudes.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
all  the  families  of  broadleaf  trees,  and  it  has  been  a  family  that  during  an 
immense  period  of  the  earth's  histor}'  has  clung  near  the  old  homestead 
where  it  came  into  existence  countless  ages  ago.  There  were  magnolias 
growing  in  the  middle  Appalachian  region,  and  eastward  to  the  present 
Atlantic  coast,  so  far  in  the  past  that  the  time  can  be  measured  only  by 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years.  Leaf  prints  in  rocks,  which  were  once 
mud  flats,  tell  the  story — though  but  a  page  here  and  there — of  the 
magnolia's  ancient  history,  doubtless  antedating  by  long  periods  the 
earliest  appearance  of  man  on  earth. 

Next  to  the  yellow  poplar,  the  cucumber  tree  is  the  most  important 
species  of  the  magnolia  family,  at  least  as  a  source  of  lumber.  As  an 
ornamental  tree  it  may  not  equal  some  of  the  others,  particularly  certain 
of  the  southern  species  which  are  evergreen  and  produce  large,  showy 
flowers. 

The  cucumber  tree  receives  its  name  from  its  fruit,  which  looks 
like  a  cucumber  when  seen  at  a  distance,  but  it  is  far  from  being  one.  Its 
intense  bitter  makes  it  safe  from  the  attacks  of  birds  and  beasts.  So  far 
as  known,  it  is  not  eaten,  tasted,  or  touched  by  any  living  creature — • 
except  man.  Some  of  the  pioneer  settlers,  in  the  days  when  there  was 
precious  little  to  eat  on  the  frontiers,  discovered  a  way  of  extracting  the 
bitter  from  the  wild  cucumber,  and  making  some  sort  of  a  pickle  of  the 


482  American  Forest  Trees 

remainder;  but  the  art  seems  to  have  been  lost  with  the  passing  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  Daniel  Boone  type,  and  the  wild  cucumber  now  hangs 
untouched,  and  tempts  nobody.  It  is  three  inches  or  less  in  length, 
generally  slightly  curved,  and  is  green  in  color  until  fully  ripe.  Even  the 
flowers  which  produce  the  fruit  are  green,  with  the  merest  suggestion  of 
yellow.  They  are  so  inconspicuous  that  few  persons  ever  notice  them, 
even  though  cucumber  trees  stand  in  door  yards.  The  ripe  cucumbers 
are  dark  red  or  scarlet,  or  rather  the  seeds  are,  which  grow  on  the  surface 
like  grains  of  com  on  a  cob,  though  fewer  in  number  and  farther  apart. 
Something  seems  to  be  lacking  in  the  machinery  by  which  the  flowers 
are  fertilized,  with  the  result  that  often  nearly  half  the  seeds  which  ought 
to  cover  the  surface  of  the  cucumber,  fail  to  materialize.  There  are 
many  blank  spaces  representing  flowers  which  the  pollen  missed. 

There  is  likewise  something  missing  in  the  modus  operandi  of 
scattering  the  seeds.  They  have  no  wings,  and  the  wind  is  powerless  to 
carry  them.  They  are  as  bitter  as  quinine  and  no  bird,  squirrel,  or 
mouse  will  plant,  carry,  or  touch  them.  Nature  appears  to  have  for- 
gotten to  provide  any  other  means  for  dispersing  the  seeds  of  this  re- 
markable tree.  When  seeds  are  fully  ripe,  they  drop  away  from  the 
parent  fruit — the  cucumber — but  the  fall  of  each  seed  is  arrested  by  a 
small  thread  which  suspends  it  from  one  to  three  inches  below  the  fruit. 
There  the  seeds  hang,  swinging  and  dangling  in  the  wind.  What  part  the 
threads  play  in  the  economy  of  nature  is  not  apparent,  unless  their 
purpose  is  to  expose  the  seeds  to  a  chance  of  becoming  entangled  with 
the  wings,  feet,  or  feathers  of  flying  birds,  whereby  they  may  be  carried 
away  and  dropped  in  suitable  places  for  growing.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  happens  occasionally,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  methods 
of  seed  dispersal.     Others  are  transported  by  flowing  water. 

The  chances  seem  to  be  greatly  against  the  survival  of  the  cucumber 
tree  in  competition  with  maples,  birches,  pines,  and  cottonwoods,  whose 
winged  seeds  are  wind-borne;  or  with  oaks,  hickories,  and  walnuts 
whose  heavy,  wingless  nuts  are  planted  hither  and  thither  by  accommo- 
dating squirrels  which  are  intent  only  on  providing  for  their  own  winter 
wants,  but  in  reality  are  industrious  and  effective  forest  planters.  Not- 
withstanding the  disadvantages  under  which  the  cucumber  tree  is  placed, 
it  has  managed  to  hold  its  ground  in  the  forest  dm^ing  immense  periods 
of  time,  and  it  seems  to  be  as  firmly  established  now  as  ever. 

The  leaves  of  this  tree  are  from  seven  to  ten  inches  long,  and  four 
to  six  wide.  In  autumn  before  they  fall  they  tirni  a  blotched  yellow- 
brown  color.  The  first  severe  frost  brings  them  all  down  in  a  heap. 
At  sunset  the  tree  may  be  laden  with  leaves,  and  by  the  next  noon  all 
will  be  on  the  ground.     They  are  so  heavy  that  the  wind  does  not  move 


American  Forest  Trees  483 

them  far,  and  they  drop  in  heaps  beneath  the  branches.  In  color  they 
resemble  owl  feathers,  and  the  suggestion  that  comes  to  one's  mind, 
who  happens  to  pass  under  a  cucumber  tree  the  morning  following  the 
first  frost,  is  that  during  the  night  some  prowler  picked  a  roost  of  owls 
and  scattered  the  feathers  on  the  ground. 

The  range  of  cucumber  extends  from  western  New  York  to  Ala- 
bama, following  the  Appalachian  mountains;  and  westward  to  Illinois 
and  Mississippi,  appearing  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  in  Arkansas.  It 
occurs  on  low  rocky  slopes,  the  banks  of  mountain  streams,  and  on  rich 
bottom  land.  It  is  of  largest  size  and  is  most  abundant  in  the  narrow 
valleys  in  eastern  Tennessee  and  the  western  parts  of  the  Carolinas. 
The  tree  is  from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  sixty  to  ninety  feet 
high.  The  trunk  is  of  good  form  for  sawlogs.  Among  its  local  names 
are  pointed-leaf  magnolia,  black  lin,  magnolia,  and  mountain  magnolia. 

The  wood  of  cucumber  resembles  that  of  yellow  poplar  in  appear- 
ance and  in  physical  properties,  except  that  it  is  ten  per  cent  heavier 
than  poplar.  It  usually  passes  for  that  wood  at  sawmill  and  factory. 
The  Federal  census  credits  it  with  less  than  a  million  feet  a  year  as  lum- 
ber. That  is  much  too  small.  It  is  valuable  and  finds  ready  sale. 
Manufacttirers  of  wooden  pumps  regard  it  as  the  best  material  for  the 
bored  logs.  It  is  worked  into  interior  finish  for  houses,  flooring  for  cars, 
interior  parts  of  furniture,  woodenware,  boxes  and  crates,  slack  cooper- 
age, including  veneer  barrels. 

The  tree  is  planted  for  ornament  in  the  northern  states  and  Europe. 
The  chief  value  lies  in  its  large,  green  leaves  and  symmetrical  crown. 
The  red  fruit  adds  to  the  tree's  attractiveness  late  in  summer. 

L.\RGEi,EAF  UmbrEul.^  [Magnolia  macrophylla)  is  valuable  chiefly  as  a  sort  of 
ornamental  curiosity,  on  account  of  its  enormous  leaves  and  flowers.  The  leaf  is 
from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  long  and  ten  to  twelve  wide.  It  drops  in  autumn 
before  its  green  color  has  undergone  much  change.  The  leaves  lack  toughness,  and 
the  wind  whips  them  into  strings  long  before  the  summer  is  ended.  Thus  what 
otherwise  would  be  highly  ornamental  becomes  somewhat  unsightly.  When  well 
protected  from  wind  by  surrounding  objects,  the  leaves  fare  better  and  last  longer. 
The  white,  fragrant  flowers  are  likewise  remarkable  on  account  of  size.  They  are 
cup-shaped  and  some  of  them  are  almost  a  foot  across.  They  pay  a  penalty  no  less 
severe  than  the  leaves  pay,  on  account  of  large  size,  and  are  hable  to  be  thumped  and 
bruised  by  swinging  leaves  and  branches. 

The  largeleaf  umbrella  is  a  tree  of  the  southern  Appalachian  mountains  al- 
though its  range  extends  southwest  to  Louisiana,  and  northward  from  there  to  Ar- 
kansas. It  is  at  its  best  in  deep  rich  soil  of  sheltered  valleys,  occurring  in  isolated 
groups,  but  never  in  pure  forests.  It  is  known  as  large-leaved  cucumber  tree,  great- 
leaved  magnolia,  large-leaved  umbrella  tree,  and  long-leaved  magnolia.  The  fruit  is 
nearly  a  sphere,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  bright  rose  color  when 
fully  ripe.  The  seeds  are  two-thirds  of  an  inch  long.  The  smooth,  light  gray  bark  is 
usually  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.     Large  trees  are  forty  or  fifty  feet  high 


American  Forest  Trees 


and  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  not  considered  valuable  for  .umber,  because  of 
scarcity  and  small  size.  The  wood  is  considerably  heavier  than  yellow  poplar,  and  is 
hard  but  not  strong;  light  brown  in  color  with  thick,  light  yellow  sapwood.  Reports 
do  not  show  that  the  wood  is  put  to  any  use.  Planted  trees  are  hardy  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts,  and  success  has  attended  the  tree's  introduction  in  the  parks  and 
gardens  of  southern  Europe. 

Yellow  Flowered  Cucumber  Tree  (Magnolia  acuminata  cordata)  is  usually 
considered  a  variety  of  the  coiimion  cucumber  tree,  rather  than  a  separate  species. 
The  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  yellow  blossom  which  gives  the  names  by  which 
it  is  generally  known,  among  such  being  yellow-flowered  magnolia,  and  yellow  cu- 
cumber tree.  It  is  not  a  garden  variety,  for  it  grows  wild ;  but  it  has  been  cultivated 
during  more  than  a  century,  and  has  undergone  changes  which  are  not  matched  by 
wild  trees.  The  finest  forms  of  the  forest  variety  are  found  on  the  Blue  Ridge  in 
South  Carolina,  and  in  central  Alabama.  The  cultivated  tree  is  distinguished  by  its 
darker  green  leaves,  and  by  its  smaller,  bright,  canary-yellow  flowers.  The  variety 
has  no  value  as  a  timber  tree,  but  is  widely  appreciated  as  an  ornament.  Cultivated 
trees  generally  remain  small  in  size,  and  do  not  develop  the  long,  clean  trunks  com- 
mon with  the  cucumber  tree  under  forest  conditions. 

Umbrella  Tree  {Magnolia  tripetala)  is  one  of  the  magnolias  and  should  not 
be  confounded  with  the  Asiatic  umbrella  tree  often  planted  in  yards.  The  flower  is 
surrounded  by  a  whorl  of  leaves  resembling  an  umbrella,  hence  the  name.  It  is  also 
known  as  cucumber,  magnolia,  and  elkwood.  The  range  of  the  tree  extends  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Alabama  and  west  to  Arkansas.  It  prefers  the  margins  of  swamps 
and  the  rich  soil  along  mountain  streams.  Leaves  are  eighteen  inches  long  and  half 
as  wide.  They  fall  in  autumn.  Flowers  are  cup-shaped  and  creamy-white.  The 
fruit  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  common  cucumber  tree,  but  is  rose  colored  when 
fully  ripe.  Trees  are  thirty  or  forty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  The 
brown  heartwood  is  light,  soft,  and  weak,  and  is  used  little  or  not  at  all  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  tree  is  cultivated  for  ornament  in  the  northern  states  and 
in  Europe. 


YELLOW  POPLAR 


YELLOW  POPLAR 

(Liriodendron  Ttdipifera) 

IN  diameter  of  trunk  the  yellow  poplar  is,  next  to  sycamore,  the 
largest  hardwood  tree  of  the  United  States,  and  if  both  height  and 
trunk  diameter  are  considered,  it  surpasses  the  sycamore  in  size.  It 
belongs  to  a  very  old  group  of  hardwoods  which  have  come  down  from 
remote  geological  ages,  and  the  species  is  now  found  only  in  the  United 
States  and  China.  Mature  trees  are  from  three  to  eight  feet  in  diameter 
and  from  90  to  180  in  height. 

It  has  many  names  in  different  parts  of  its  range,  but  it  is  never 
mistaken  for  any  other  tree.  The  peculiar  notched  leaf  is  a  sure  means 
of  identification.  The  resemblance  of  the  flower  to  the  tulip  has  given 
it  the  name  tulip  tree  in  some  localities,  and  botanists  prefer  that  name. 
It  is  so  called  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  West 
Virginia,  District  of  Columbia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Cleorgia, 
Arkansas,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Ontario.  Wood  users 
in  New  England  and  in  some  of  the  other  northern  states  prefer  the 
name  whitewood  and  it  is  so  known,  in  part  at  least,  in  New  England, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  South  Carolina,  Kentucky,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  and  Illinois.  Yellow  poplar  is  the  name  preferred  by  lumber- 
men in  nearly  all  regions  where  the  tree  is  found  in  commercial  quan- 
tities, notably  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee.  The  name 
is  often  shortened  to  poplar,  which  is  used  in  Rhode  Island,  Delaware, 
North  and  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and 
Indiana.  The  name  tulip  poplar  is  less  frequently  heard,  and  blue 
poplar  and  hickory  poplar  are  terms  used  in  West  Virginia,  Virginia, 
and  North  Carolina,  but  generally  under  the  impression  that  they  refer 
to  a  different  form  or  species.  In  Rhode  Island  it  is  called  popple,  in 
New  York  cucumber  tree,  and  canoewood  in  Tennessee  and  in  the  upper 
Ohio  valley. 

The  botanical  range  of  yellow  poplar  is  wider  than  its  commercial 
range;  that  is,  a  few  trees  are  found  in  regions  surrounding  the  borders 
of  the  district  where  the  tree  is  profitably  lumbered.  The  boundaries 
of  its  range  run  from  southwestern  Vermont,  westward  to  Lake  Michigan 
near  Grand  Haven,  southward  to  northern  Florida,  and  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  The  productive  yellow 
poplar  timber  belt  has  never  been  that  large  but  has  clung  pretty  closely 


488  American  Forest  Trees 

to  the  southern  Appalachian  mountain  ranges  and  to  certain  districts 
lying  both  east  and  west  of  them.  The  best  original  stands  were  in 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  western  North 
Carolina,  eastern  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  in  some  parts  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana.  However,  considerable  quantities  of  good  yellow  poplar 
have  been  cut  in  other  regions. 

The  physical  properties  of  the  wood  of  yellow  poplar  fit  it  for  many 
purposes  but  not  for  all.  It  is  not  very  strong  and  is  tolerably  brittle. 
It  is  light  in  weight,  medium  soft,  and  is  easily  worked.  The  annual 
rings  of  growth  are  not  prominent  compared  with  some  of  the  oaks,  yet 
select  logs  show  nicely  in  quarter-sawing.  The  medullary  rays  are 
numerous,  but  small  and  not  prominent,  for  which  reason  bright  streaks 
and  flecks  are  not  characteristic  of  the  wood.  Yellow  poplar  is  fairly 
stiff  and  elastic,  but  is  not  often  selected  on  account  of  those  qualities. 
In  color  it  is  light  yellow  or  brown.  The  color  gives  name  to  the  tree. 
The  sapwood  is  whiter,  and  it  is  the  abnormally  thick  sapwood  of  some 
trees  which  causes  them  to  be  called  white  poplar.  The  wood  has  little 
figure,  and  it  is  seldom  employed  for  fine  work  without  stain  or  paint  of 
some  kind.  It  is  not  usually  classed  as  long  lasting  when  exposed  to  the 
weather,  yet  cases  are  known  where  weather  boarding  of  houses,  and 
bridge  and  mill  timbers  of  yellow  poplar  have  outlasted  the  generation  of 
builders. 

The  quantity  of  yellow  poplar  in  the  country  is  but  a  remnant  of 
the  former  enormous  supply  that  covered  the  rich  valleys  and  fertile 
coves  in  a  region  exceeding  200,000  square  miles.  It  occupied  the  best 
land,  and  much  was  destroyed  by  farmers  in  clearing  fields.  It  was 
not  generally  found  in  groves  or  dense  stands,  but  as  solitary  trees 
scattered  through  forests  of  other  woods.  The  trunks  are  tall  and 
shapely,  the  crowns  comparatively  small.  The  form  is  ideal  for  sawlogs, 
and  very  few  trees  of  America  produce  a  higher  percentage  of  clear, 
first  class  lumber.  That  is  because  the  forest-grown  poplar  early  sheds 
its  lower  branches,  and  the  trunks  lay  on  nothing  but  clear  wood. 
In  the  yellow  poplar's  region  it  was  the  principal  wood  of  which  the 
pioneers  made  their  canoes  for  crossing  and  navigating  rivers.  It  is 
still  best  known  by  the  name  canoewood  in  some  regions.  It  worked 
easily  and  was  light,  and  a  thin-shelled  canoe  lasted  many  years,  barring 
floods  and  other  accidents.  Builders  of  pirogues,  keelboats,  barges,  and 
other  vessels  for  inland  navigation  in  early  times  when  roads  were  few 
and  streams  were  the  principal  highways  of  commerce,  found  no  timber 
superior  to  yellow  poplar.  It  could  be  had  in  planks  of  great  size  and 
free  from  defects,  and  while  not  as  strong  as  oak,  it  was  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  usual  knocks  and  buffetings  of  river  traffic. 


American  Forest  Trees  489 

Yellow  poplar  sawlogs  have  probably  exceeded  in  number  any 
other  wood,  except  white  pine,  floated  down  rivers  and  creeks  to 
market.  The  wood  floats  well  and  lumbermen  have  usually  pushed  far 
up  the  rivers,  ahead  of  other  lumber  operations,  to  prociue  it.  Enor- 
mous drives  have  gone  and  are  still  going  out  of  rivers  in  the  Appalachian 
region. 

The  uses  of  yellow  poplar  are  so  many  that  an  enumeration  is 
impracticable,  except  by  general  classes.  These  are  boxes  and  wooden- 
ware,  vehicles,  furniture,  interior  finish,  and  car  building.  There  is 
another  class  consisting  of  low-grade  work,  such  as  common  lumber, 
pulpwood,  and  the  like. 

There  is  a  class  of  commodities  which  are  usually  packed  in  boxes 
and  require  a  wood  that  will  impart  neither  taste  nor  stain.  That 
requirement  is  met  by  yellow  poplar.  It  has  been  an  important  wood 
for  boxes  in  which  food  products  are  shipped.  It  is  so  used  less  fre- 
quently now  than  formerly  because  of  increased  cost,  but  veneer  is 
employed  to  a  large  extent,  and  while  the  total  quantity  of  wood  going 
into  box  factories  is  smaller  than  formerly,  the  actual  number  and 
contents  of  poplar  boxes  are  perhaps  about  the  same.  It  is  a  white 
wood  and  shows  printing  and  stenciling  clearly.  That  is  an  important 
point  with  many  manufacturers  who  wish  to  print  their  advertisements 
on  the  boxes  which  they  send  out.  Woodenware,  particularly  ironing 
boards,  bread  boards,  and  pantry  and  kitchen  utensils,  are  largely 
made  of  poplar  because  it  is  light,  attractive,  and  easily  kept  clean.  It  is 
popular  as  pumplogs  for  the  same  reason. 

As  a  vehicle  wood,  yellow  poplar  is  not  a  competitor  of  oak  and 
hickory.  They  are  for  running  gear  and  frames;  poplar  for  tops  and 
bodies.  No  wood  excels  it  for  wide  panels.  It  receives  finish  and  paint 
so  well  that  it  is  not  surpassed  by  the  smoothest  metals.  Many  of  the 
finest  carriage  and  automobile  tops  are  largely  of  this  wood.  In  case 
of  slight  accidents  it  resists  dints  much  better  than  sheet  metal. 

Cheap  furniture  was  once  made  of  yellow  poplar.  It  now  enters 
into  the  best  kinds,  and  is  finished  in  imitation  of  costly  woods,  notably 
mahogany,  birch,  and  cherry.  No  American  wood  will  take  a  higher 
polish.  It  is  also  much  employed  as  an  interior  wood  by  furniture 
manufacturers.  It  fills  an  important  place  as  cores  or  backing  over 
which  veneers  are  glued. 

When  used  as  an  interior  house  finish  and  in  car  building,  it  is 
nearly  always  stained  or  painted.  Many  of  the  broad  handsome  panels 
in  passenger  cars,  which  pass  for  cherry,  birch,  mahogany,  or  rosewood, 
are  yellow  poplar,  to  which  the  finisher  and  decorator  have  given  their 
best  touches. 


490  American  Forest  Trees 

All  poplar  lumber  is  not  wide,  clear  stock,  though  much  of  it  is. 
The  lower  grades  go  as  common  lumber  and  small  trees  are  cut  for  pulp- 
wood.  A  large  part  of  the  demand  for  high-grade  yellow  poplar  is  in 
foreign  countries,  and  a  regular  oversea  trade  is  carried  on  by  exporters. 
Foreign  manufacturers  put  the  wood  to  practically  the  same  uses  as  the 
best  grades  in  this  country. 

Yellow  poplar  seasons  well,  and  is  a  satisfactory  wood  to  handle. 
When  thoroughly  dry  it  holds  its  shape  with  the  best  of  woods.  Bluing 
is  apt  to  affect  the  green  wood  if  unduly  exposed.  Fresh  poplar  chips 
in  damp  situations  sometimes  change  to  a  conspicuous  blue  color  within 
a  day  or  two.  However,  millmen  do  not  experience  much  difficulty  in 
preventing  the  bluing  of  the  lumber. 

Gyminda  {Gyminda  grisebachii)  is  also  called  false  boxwood,  and 
belongs  to  the  staff  family.  The  name  gj'minda  is  artificial  and  meaning- 
less. The  genus  has  a  single  species  which  occurs  in  the  islands  of 
southern  Florida  where  trees  of  largest  size  are  scarcely  twenty-five  feet 
high  and  six  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  fine- 
grained, and  is  nearly  black.  It  is  suitable  for  small  articles,  but  it  is 
not  known  to  be  so  used,  and  its  scarcity  renders  improbable  any  im- 
portant future  use  of  the  wood.  The  fruit  is  a  small  berry,  ripening  in 
November.  The  range  of  the  species  extends  to  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and 
other  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 


EVERGREEN  MAGNOLIA 


EVERGREEN  MAGNOLIA 

(Magnolia  Fcetida) 

THIS  is  not  a  timber  tree  of  first  importance.  A  few  years  ago  it 
was  seldom  cut  except  in  very  small  quantities ;  but  it  was  found  to 
possess  good  qualities,  and  now  it  goes  regularly  to  the  mills  which  saw 
hardwoods  in  the  region  where  it  grows.  The  wood  of  different  magnolia 
trees,  or  even  the  wood  of  the  same  tree,  shows  lack  of  uniformity.  Some 
of  it  looks  like  yellow  poplar  and  compares  favorably  with  it  in  several 
particulars,  while  other  of  it  is  very  dark,  with  hard  flinty  streaks  which 
not  only  present  a  poor  appearance,  but  dull  the  tools  of  the  woodwork- 
ing machines  and  create  an  unfavorable  impression  of  the  wood  generally. 
This  magnolia  holds  pretty  closely  to  the  damp  lands  in  all  parts  of  its 
range.  The  amount  of  the  annual  cut  is  not  known,  because  it  goes  in 
with  the  minor  species  in  most  places  and  no  separate  account  is  taken. 
It  is  coming  into  more  notice  every  year,  and  some  manufacturers  have 
been  so  successful  in  finding  ways  to  make  it  serviceable  that  the  best 
grades  are  easily  sold.  The  wood  does  not  hold  its  color  very  well.  The 
light-colored  sapwood  is  apt  to  become  darker  after  exposure  to  the  air, 
and  the  dark  heartwood  fades  a  little.  The  tree  is  so  handsome  in  the 
forest  that  it  is  occasionally  spared  when  the  surrounding  trees  are 
removed. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  American  tree  surpasses  it  as  an  ornament 
when  its  leaves,  trunk,  flowers,  and  bark  are  considered.  It  is  not 
perfect  in  all  of  these  particulars;  in  fact,  it  possesses  some  serious  faults. 
The  crown  is  often  too  small  for  the  tree's  height;  the  branches  straggle, 
many  on  some  parts  of  the  trunk  and  few  on  others;  the  flowers  are 
objectionable  because  of  strong  odor  which  is  unpleasant  to  most  people. 
But  these  shortcomings  are  more  thai:  compensated  for  by  splendid 
qualities.  The  rich,  dark  green  of  the  leaves,  their  size  and  profusion, 
their  changeless  luster,  place  them  in  a  position  almost  beyond  the  reach 
of  rivalry  from  any  other  tree. 

Those  who  see  this  splendid  inhabitant  of  the  forest  only  where  it 
has  been  planted  in  northern  states,  and  elsewhere  outside  of  its  natural 
range,  miss  much  of  the  best  it  has  to  give.  It  belongs  in  the  South. 
The  wet  lands,  the  small  elevations  in  deep  swamps,  the  flat  country 
where  forests  are  dense,  are  its  home.  The  yellowish-green  trunk  rises 
through  the  tangled  foliage  that  keeps  near  the  ground,  and  towers  fifty 
feet  above,  and  there  spreads  in  a  crown  of  green  so  deep  that  it  is  almost 
black.  It  likes  company,  and  seldom  grows  solitary.  Its  associates  are 
the  southern  maples,  red  gum,  tupelo,  cypress,  a  dozen  species  of  oak, 


494  American  Forest  Trees 

and  occasionally  pines  on  nearby  higher  ground.  Festoons  of  grayish- 
green  Spanish  moss  often  add  to  the  tropical  character  of  the  scene. 
The  moss  seldom  hangs  on  the  magnolia,  but  is  frequently  abimdant  on 
surrounding  trees. 

Lumbermen  formerly  left  the  evergreen  magnolia  trees  on  tracts 
from  which  they  cut  nearly  everything  else.  Large  areas  which  had 
once  been  regarded  as  swamps  were  thus  converted  into  parks  of  giant 
magnolias,  many  of  which  towered  seventy  or  eighty  feet.  The  tracts 
were  left  wild,  and  those  who  so  left  them  had  no  purpose  of  providing 
ornament,  but  they  did  so.  Many  a  scene  was  made  grand  by  its 
magnolias,  after  other  forest  growth  had  been  cut  away. 

The  range  of  evergreen  magnolia  is  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  The  species  reaches  largest  size  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Mississippi,  both  east  and  west  of  it.  Trees  eighty  feet 
high  and  foiu:  feet  in  diameter  occur,  and  trunks  are  often  without  limbs 
one-half  or  two-thirds  their  length,  when  they  grow  in  forests. 

The  common  name  for  the  tree  in  most  parts  of  its  range  is  simply 
magnolia,  though  that  name  fails  to  distinguish  it  from  several  other 
species,  some  of  which  are  associated  with  it.  Occasionally  it  is  called 
big  laurel,  great  lam^el  magnolia,  laurel-leaved  magnolia,  laurel,  and 
laurel  bay.  Bull  bay  is  a  common  name  for  it  in  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi.  It  is  called  bat  tree,  but  the  reason  for  such  a  name 
is  not  known. 

Leaves  are  from  five  to  eight  inches  long  and  two  or  three  wide, 
and  dark  green  above,  but  lighter  below.  They  fall  in  the  spring  after 
remaining  on  the  branches  two  whole  years. 

The  odor  of  the  flowers  is  unpleasant,  but  they  are  attractive  to  the 
sight,  being  six  or  eight  inches  across,  with  piu-ple  bases.  The  flowering 
habit  of  this  tree  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  It  is  in  bloom  from  April 
till  August. 

The  fruit  resembles  that  of  the  other  magnolias  and  is  three  or  four 
inches  long  and  two  or  less  wide.  Its  color  is  rusty-brown.  The  ripe 
seeds  hang  awhile  by  short  threads,  according  to  the  habit  of  the  family. 
The  wood  is  stronger  than  poplar,  fully  as  stiff,  and  nearly  fifty  per  cent 
heavier.  The  annual  rings  are  rather  vaguely  marked  by  narrow  bands 
of  summerwood.  Pores  are  diffuse,  plentiful,  and  very  small.  Medul- 
lary rays  are  larger  than  those  of  yellow  poplar,  and  show  fairly  well  in 
quarter-sawed  stock.  The  wood  is  compact  and  easily  worked,  except 
when  hard  streaks  are  encountered.  The  surface  finishes  with  a  satiny 
luster;  color  creamy-white,  yellowish-white,  or  often  light  brown.  Occa- 
sionally the  wood  is  nearly  diametrically  the  opposite  of  this,  and  is  of  all 
darker  shades  up  to  purple,  black,  and  blue  black.     The  appearance  of 


American  Forest  Trees  495 

the  dark  wood  suggests  decay,  but  those  who  pass  it  through  machines, 
or  work  it  by  hand,  consider  it  as  sound  as  the  lighter  colored  wood. 

The  uses  of  magnolia  are  much  the  same  in  all  parts  of  its  range, 
and  those  of  Louisiana,  where  the  utilization  of  the  wood  has  been 
studied  more  closely  than  in  other  regions,  indicate  the  scope  of  its 
usefulness.  It  is  there  made  into  parts  of  boats,  bar  fixtures,  boxes, 
broom  handles,  brush  backs,  crates,  door  panels,  dugout  canoes,  ex- 
celsior, furniture  shelving,  interior  finish,  ox  yokes,  panels,  and  wagon 
boxes.  In  Texas  where  the  annual  consumption  probably  exceeds  a 
million  feet,  it  is  employed  by  furniture  makers,  and  appears  in  window 
blinds,  packing  boxes,  sash,  and  molding.  In  Mississippi,  fine  mantels 
are  made  of  carefully  selected  wood,  quarter-sawed  to  bring  out  the 
small,  square  "mirrors"  produced  by  radial  cutting  of  the  medullary 
rays. 

Evergreen  magnolia  has  long  been  planted  for  ornament  in  this 
country  and  Europe.  It  survives  the  winters  at  Philadelphia.  Several 
varieties  have  been  developed  by  cultivation  and  are  sold  by  nurseries. 
Southern  forests  have  contributed,  and  still  contribute,  large 
quantities  of  magnolia  leaves  for  decorations  in  northern  cities  during 
winter.  The  flowers  are  not  successfully  shipped  because  they  are  easily 
bruised,  and  they  quickly  lose  their  freshness  and  beauty. 

Sweet  Magnoua  {Magnolia  glauca)  ranges  from  Massachusetts  to  Texas  and 
south  to  Florida.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  on  the  hummock  lands  of  the  latter  state. 
Trees  are  occasionally  seventy  feet  high  and  three  or  more  in  diameter,  but  in  many 
parts  of  its  range  it  is  small,  even  shrubby.  Among  the  names  by  which  it  is  known 
are  white  bay,  swamp  laurel,  swamp  sassafras,  swamp  magnolia,  white  laurel,  and 
beaver-tree.  It  inhabits  swamps  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range,  hence  the  fre- 
quency of  the  word  "swamp"  in  coining  names  for  it.  Beaver-tree  as  a  name  is 
probably  due  to  its  former  abundance  about  beaver  dams,  where  impounded  water 
made  the  ground  swampy.  In  the  North,  sweet  magnolia's  chief  value  is  in  its  flowers, 
which  are  two  or  three  inches  across,  creamy-white,  and  fragrant.  They  were 
formerly  very  abundant  near  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna  river  in  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  northward  through  New  Jersey;  but  the  traffic  in  the  iJowers  has 
destroyed  the  growth  in  many  places  where  once  plentiful.  It  is  not  important  as  a 
timber  resource,  but  it  is  employed  for  a  number  of  useful  purposes  where  logs  of  fair 
size  may  be  had.  The  sapwood  is  creamy-white,  but  the  heart  is  nearly  as  dark  as 
mahogany,  and  in  Texas  it  is  used  to  imitate  that  wood.  The  brown  and  other  shades 
combine  with  fine  effect.  One  of  its  cotnmon  uses  is  for  broom  handles.  Heartwood 
is  worked  into  high-grade  chairs.     It  takes  a  beautiful  polish. 

FrasER  Umbrella  {Magnolia  fraseri)  ranges  south  from  the  Virginia  momi- 
ains  to  Florida  and  west  to  Mississippi.  It  is  of  largest  size  in  South  Carolina  where 
rees  are  sometimes  thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  The  leaves  fall 
n  autumn  of  the  first  year ;  the  creamy-white,  sweetly-scented  flowers  are  eight  or  ten 
nches  in  diameter,  and  the  fruit  resembles  that  of  the  other  magnolias.  The  wood 
s  weak,  soft,  and  light.  The  heart  is  clear  brown,  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  It 
has  not  been  reported  in  use  for  any  commercial  purpose.     Among  its  other  names 


496  American  Forest  Trees 

it  is  known  as  long-leaved  cucumber  tree,  ear-leaved  umbrella  tree,  Indian  bitters, 
water  lily  tree,  and  mountain  magnolia.  In  cultivation  this  species  is  hardy  as  far 
north  as  Massachusetts,  and  it  is  planted  for  ornament  in  Europe. 

Pyramid  Magnolia  {Magnolia  pyramidata)  seems  to  have  generally  escaped 
the  notice  of  laymen,  and  it  therefore  has  no  English  name  except  the  translation  of 
the  Latin  term  by  which  botanists  know  it.  Its  habitat  lies  in  southern  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  and  western  Florida,  and  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  cultivation  in  western 
Europe.  It  is  a  slender  tree,  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height.  Its  flowers  are  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter,  and  creamy-white  in  color.  A  tree  so  scarce  caimot  be  ex- 
pected to  be  commercially  important. 

Western  Black  Willow  (Salix  lasiandra)  is  a  rather  large  tree  when  at  its 
best,  reaching  a  diameter  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  a  height  of  fifty,  but  in  other  parts 
of  its  range  it  rarely  exceeds  ten  feet  in  height.  It  follows  the  western  mountain 
ranges  southward  from  British  Columbia  into  California.  The  wood  is  soft,  Ught, 
and  brittle,  and  is  used  httle  if  at  all.  Lyall  willow  {Salix  lasiandra  lyalli)  is  a  well 
marked  variety  of  this  species  and  is  a  tree  of  respectable  size. 

Glossvleaf  Willow  {Salix  lucida)  is  a  far  northern  species  which  has  its 
southern  limit  in  Pennsylvania  and  Nebraska.  It  grows  nearly  to  the  Arctic  circle. 
Trees  twenty-five  feet  high  and  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter  are  the  best  this 
species  affords. 

LoNGLEAF  Willow  {Salix  ftumatilis)  is  known  also  as  sandbar  willow,  narrow- 
leaf  willow,  shrub,  white,  red,  and  osier  willow,  and  by  still  other  names.  It  ranges 
from  the  Arctic  circle  to  Mexico,  reaching  Maryland  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and 
California  on  the  Pacific.  In  rare  cases  it  is  sixty  feet  high,  and  two  in  diameter, 
but  it  is  usually  less  than  twenty  feet  high. 


WAHOO 

(Evonymiis  Airopurpureus) 

NO  one  seems  to  know  what  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  wahoo 
was.  It  is  applied  to  no  fewer  than  six  different  trees  in  this 
countn-,  four  of  them  elms,  one  a  basswood,  and  one  the  tree  now  under 
consideration.  The  generic  name,  Evonymiis,  appears  to  be  an  effort  to 
put  somebody's  seal  of  approval  on  the  name,  for  it  means  in  the  Greek 
language  "of  good  name." 

It  belongs  to  the  family  Celastracece,  which  means  the  staff  family. 
Some  designate  members  of  this  group  as  "Spindle  trees,"  because 
formerly  in  Europe  the  wood  was  employed  for  knitting  needles,  hooks 
for  embroidering,  spindles  for  spinning  wheels,  and  the  like.  Unless  the 
members  of  the  family  in  Europe  have  wood  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  wahoo  tree  in  this  country,  no  adequate  reason  can  be  found  for  the 
use  of  the  wood  for  spindles  or  staffs,  because  it  is  poor  material  for  that 
purpose.     It  may  be  compared  with  basswood. 

This  beautiful  little  tree,  scarcely  more  than  a  shrub  in  most  regions 
of  its  growth,  is  a  widelj'  distributed  species,  its  range  extending  through 
western  New  York  to  Nebraska,  southeastern  South  Dakota  and  eastern 
Kansas,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  upper  Missouri  river,  Montana,  south- 
ward to  northern  Florida,  southern  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma.  In 
these  localities  it  is  generally  a  shrub,  rarely  reaching  a  height  of  more 
than  nine  or  ten  feet.  It  attains  the  proportions  of  a  tree  only  in  the  bot- 
tom lands  of  southern  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  in  the  lower  Appala- 
chian regions.  The  most  favorable  habitat  of  the  tree  is  moist  soil 
along  the  banks  of  streams.  In  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  its 
range,  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  and  when  isolated 
from  other  species,  the  wahoo  tree  grows  to  rather  large  size  and 
develops  a  wide  flat  top  of  slender  spreading  branches. 

The  largest  and  most  beautiful  specimens  of  wahoo  grow  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  West  Virginia,  eastern  Tennessee,  and  western 
North  Carolina.  In  these  sections  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  a  tree  of  this 
species  to  attain  a  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter  of 
twenty  or  twenty-four  inches.  It  is  never  found  in  pure  stands  but  is 
isolated  along  the  edge  of  the  forest,  and  thrives  best  near  water  courses. 

The  tree  is  known  by  a  variety  of  names  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Indians  are  said  to  have  called  it  wahoo.  Burning  bush, 
a  ver)^  popular  name,  is  especially  appropriate,  as  no  brighter  dash  of 
color  is  displayed  by  any  tree  than  the  scarlet  fruit  of  this  growth,  which 
remains  on  the  branches  long  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  often  until  the 


500  American  Forest  Trees 

winter  storms  beat  it  to  tlie  ground.  The  growth  is  also  called  occasion- 
ally by  the  name  bleeding-heart  tree,  in  reference  to  the  blood-red  con- 
tents revealed  by  the  biu-sting  fruit. 

The  wahoo  in  the  fall  of  the  year  may  be  identified  by  the  flaming 
color  of  its  fruit,  or  rather  the  seeds  of  the  fruit.  The  hull  bursts  and 
exposes  the  bright  red  seeds  within.  These,  contrary  to  the  usual  run 
of  red  fruits,  are  not  of  a  glossy  surface,  and  in  this  the  tree  is  unique. 
During  the  summer  season,  however,  identification  is  not  such  a  simple 
matter,  for  the  foliage  is  quite  ordinary,  and  the  fiat,  unassuming  flowers 
have  little  that  is  distinctive  about  them ;  but  as  the  autumn  approaches 
and  the  leaves  turn  a  pale  yellow  color,  the  tree  becomes  a  conspicuous 
and  beautiful  object  with  its  scarlet  berries. 

The  bark  of  the  wahoo  is  ashen  gray,  thin,  furrowed,  and  divided 
into  minute  scales.  On  the  branchlets  it  is  a  dark  purplish-brown, 
later  becoming  brownish-gray. 

The  heartwood  of  wahoo  is  white,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  orange. 
The  sapwood,  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  heartwood,  is  more  nearly 
white  in  tone.  The  wood  is  heavy  and  close-grained  but  not  very  hard. 
It  weighs  when  seasoned  a  little  less  than  forty  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
Such  of  this  wood  as  is  sawed  into  lumber,  which  is  but  a  small  quantity, 
sells  commercially  with  poplar  saps,  thus  masquerading  like  its  forest 
fellow,  the  cucumber  tree.  The  character  of  the  wood  is  such  that  it 
will  not  stand  exposure  to  the  weather  any  length  of  time.  It  is  far 
from  durable,  but  is  remarkably  clear  from  defects  and  answers  ad- 
mirably many  purposes  for  which  sap  poplar  is  desirable. 

The  leaves  of  the  tree  are  waxy  in  appearance,  opposite,  entire, 
elliptical  or  ovate  in  shape,  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  one  to  two 
broad.  They  are  finely  serrate  and  pointed  at  both  apex  and  base,  and 
the  stems  are  short  and  stout. 

The  flowers,  which  appear  in  May  and  June,  are  definitely  four- 
parted,  presenting  a  Maltese  cross  in  shape.  They  are  half  an  inch 
across,  and  their  rounded  petals  are  deep  purple  in  color.  The  fruit 
which  succeeds  these  flowers  and  which  ripens  in  October  is  also  four- 
parted.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  across,  a  pale  purple  when  full  size, 
and  hangs  on  long  slender  stems.  When  ripe  the  purple  husk  bursts 
and  reveals  the  seed  enveloped  in  a  scarlet  outer  coat  that  fits  it  loosely. 
The  leaves,  bark,  and  fruit  of  the  wahoo  are  acrid  and  are  reputed  to  be 
poisonous. 

The  wood  is  one-third  heavier  than  that  of  yellow  poplar,  and  it  is 
evident  that  it  would  not  pass  as  poplar  with  any  one  disposed  to  reject 
it.  It  is  also  much  harder  than  poplar,  and  is  more  difficult  to  season,  as 
it  checks  badly.    The  medullary  rays  are  so  thin  as  to  be  scarcely  dis- 


American  Forest  Trees  501 

cernible.  The  wood  contains  many  very  small  pores.  The  bark  is 
said  to  possess  some  value  for  medicinal  purposes.  No  special  uses  for 
the  wood  have  been  reported,  and  it  is  too  scarce  to  be  of  much  value. 
The  tree's  principal  importance  is  as  an  ornament,  and  it  shows  well  in 
winter  borders  where  the  bright  colors  of  the  seeds  are  exposed.  It  is 
planted  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  The  plantings  seldom 
or  never  reach  tree  size. 

Florida  Boxwood  {Sdunfjcria  frutcsccns)  is  of  the  same  family  as 
wahoo  but  of  another  genus,  and  is  quite  a  different  kind  of  tree.  The 
generic  name  is  in  honor  of  Jakob  Christian  Schaeffer,  a  distinguished 
German  naturalist  who  died  in  1790.  Two  species  of  this  tree  occur  in 
the  United  States,  one  the  Florida  boxwood,  the  other  a  small,  shrubby 
growth  in  tlie  dry  regions  of  western  Texas  and  northern  Mexico. 
Florida  boxwood  is  a  West  Indies  tree  which  flourishes  in  the  Bahamas 
and  southward  along  the  other  islands  to  Venezuela.  It  has  gained  a 
foothold  on  the  islands  of  southern  Florida  where  it  has  found  conditions 
favorable  and  it  grows  to  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  and  reaches  a 
tnmk  diameter  of  ten  inches,  but  such  are  trees  of  the  largest  size.  The 
leaves  are  bright  yellow-green,  about  two  inches  long,  and  one  or  less  in 
width.  They  appear  in  Florida  in  April  and  persist  a  full  year,  until  the 
foliage  of  the  succeeding  crop  displaces  them.  The  flowers  which  are 
small  and  inconspicuous,  open  about  the  same  time  as  the  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  a  scarlet  berry  which  ripens  in  November,  and  has  a  decidedly 
disagreeable  flavor.     The  bark  is  very  thin. 

When  sound  wood  in  sufficiently  large  pieces  is  obtainable  it  is 
valuable  for  a  number  of  purposes,  but  chiefly  as  a  substitute  for  Tvirkish 
boxwood  as  engraving  blocks.  The  trees  are  always  small  in  Florida, 
which  is  the  only  place  in  the  United  States  where  they  occur,  and  the 
largest  are  often  hollow  or  otherwise  defective.  The  wood  weighs  48.27 
pounds  per  cubic  foot,  thoroughly  dry,  which  is  about  two  pounds 
heavier  than  white  oak.  It  is  rich  in  ashes,  having  about  four  times  as 
much  as  white  oak.  The  color  of  the  heartwood  is  a  bright,  clear  yellow 
to  which  is  due  the  name  yellow-wood  occasionally  applied  to  the  tree  in 
the  region  where  it  grows,  as  well  as  in  markets  where  it  is  sold.  This 
is  not  the  tree  known  in  commerce  as  West  Indies  boxwood,  though  it 
may  be  an  occasional  substitute.  It  is  said  that  Florida  boxwood  was 
formerly  much  more  abundant  in  this  country  than  it  is  now.  It  was 
lumbered  for  the  European  market  at  about  the  same  time  that  the 
south  of  Florida  was  stripped  of  its  mahogany.  It  is  suitable  for  many 
small  articles  where  a  hard,  even-grained  wood  is  wanted. 

Ironwood  {Cyrilla  racemiflora)  ranges  from  the  coast  region  of 
North  Carolina  to  Florida,  and  west  near  the  coast  to  Texas.     It  is 


502  American  Forest  Trees 

known  as  leatherwood,  burnwood,  burnwood  bark,  firewood,  red  titi,  and 
white  titi.  Ten  woods  besides  this  are  called  ironwood  in  some  parts  of 
this  country.  The  name  is  applied  because  the  hardness  of  the  wood 
suggests  iron.  It  is  not  remarkable  for  its  weight  nor  its  strength.  The 
medullary  rays  are  tliin  and  inconspicuous.  In  color  it  is  brown, 
tinged  with  red.  It  is  not  apparent  why  it  is  a  favorite  fire  wood,  for  its 
fuel  value  does  not  rate  high  theoretically,  being  much  below  many 
species  with  which  it  is  associated.  The  largest  trees  rarely  exceed  a 
height  of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  twelve  inches.  They  flourish  in 
shady  river  bottoms  and  along  the  borders  of  sandy  swamps  and  shallow 
ponds. 

The  tree  occasionally  assumes  the  form  of  a  bush  and  sends  up  many 
stems  which  produce  almost  impenetrable  thickets.  Aside  from  its  use 
as  fuel,  it  is  in  small  demand  anywhere.  In  Texas  it  is  sometimes  made 
into  wedges,  and  similar  uses  for  it  are  doubtless  found  in  other 
regions  where  it  is  abundant.  It  is  named  from  Domenico  Civillo,  an 
Italian  naturalist  who  died  in  1799. 

Titi  {Clijtonia  monophylla)  is  of  the  cyrilla  family  and  is  one  of 
three  species  which  occasionally  pass  under  that  name.  It  sometimes 
reaches  a  height  of  fifty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  one  or  more.  Its  range 
follows  the  coast  region  from  South  Carolina  to  Louisiana.  It  betakes 
itself  to  swamps  and  flourishes  in  situations  that  would  be  fatal  to  many 
species.  Half  under  water  during  many  months  of  the  year  it  is  placed 
at  no  disadvantage.  It  grows  equally  well  in  shallow  swamps  which 
are  rarely  overflowed.  Near  the  southern  limits  of  its  range  in  Florida 
it  is  reduced  to  a  shrub.  It  is  known  as  ironwood  and  buckwheat  tree. 
The  last  name  is  due  to  its  seeds  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  buckwheat 
grain  and  otherwise  resemble  it.  The  flowers  appear  in  early  spring  on 
long  racemes,  and  are  very  fragrant.  The  wood  weighs  about  thirty- 
nine  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  not  strong,  but  is  moderately  hard.  It  is 
\aluable  as  fuel  and  bums  with  a  clear,  bright  flame. 


MOUNTAIN  LAUREL 


MOUNTAIN  LAUREL 

{Kalmia  Latifolia) 

THIS  tree  belongs  to  the  heath  family  and  not  to  the  laurels,  as  the 
name  seems  to  imply.  The  same  is  true  of  rhododendron.  The 
kalmia  genus  has  five  or  six  species  in  this  country,  but  only  one  of  tree 
size,  and  then  only  when  at  its  best.  Mountain  laurel  reaches  its  best 
development  in  North  and  South  Carolina  in  a  few  secluded  valleys 
between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  western  mountains  of  the  Appalachian 
ranges.  The  largest  specimens  are  forty  or  fifty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Trunks  are  contorted  and  unshapely,  and 
lumber  is  never  sawed  from  them. 

The  tree  has  many  names,  most  of  them,  however,  are  applied  to 
the  species  in  its  shrubby  form.  A  common  name  is  simply  laurel,  but 
that  does  not  distinguish  it  from  the  great  laurel  which  is  often  associated 
with  it.  Calico  bush  is  one  of  its  names,  and  is  supposed  to  be  descriptive 
of  the  flowers.  Spoonwood  is  one  of  its  northern  names,  dating  back  to 
the  times  when  early  settlers,  who  carried  little  silverware  with  them  to 
their  frontier  homes,  augmented  the  supply  by  making  spoons  and  ladles 
of  laurel  roots.  Ivy  is  a  common  name,  sometimes  mountain  ivy,  or 
poison  ivy.  Poison  laurel  and  sheep  laurel  are  among  the  names  also. 
The  leaves  are  poisonous,  and  if  sheep  feed  on  them,  death  is  apt  to 
follow.  The  exact  nature  of  the  poison  is  not  understood.  Sheep 
seldom  feed  on  the  leaves,  and  do  so  only  when  driven  by  hunger. 
Other  names  are  small  laurel,  wood  laurel,  and  kalmia.  The  last  is  the 
name  of  the  genus,  and  is  in  honor  of  Peter  Kalm,  a  Swedish  naturalist. 
The  species  is  found  from  New  Brunswick  to  Louisiana,  but  princi- 
pally among  the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  mountains.  Its  thin  bark 
makes  it  an  easy  prey  to  fire  and  the  top  is  killed  by  a  moderate  blaze. 
The  root  generally  remains  uninjured  and  sends  up  sprouts  in  large 
numbers.  Thickets  almost  impenetrable  are  sometimes  produced  in 
that  way. 

Flowers  and  foliage  of  mountain  laurel  are  highly  esteemed  as 
decorations,  foliage  in  winter,  and  the  flowers  in  May  and  June.  The 
bloom  appears  in  large  clusters,  and  various  colors  are  in  evidence,  white, 
rose,  pink,  and  numerous  combinations.  The  seeds  are  ripe  in  Septem- 
ber, and  the  pods  which  bear  them  burst  soon  after. 

The  wood  of  mountain  laurel  weighs  44.62  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
It  is  hard,  strong,  rather  brittle,  of  slow  growth,  brown  in  color,  tinged 
with  red,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood.  This  description  applies  to  the 
wood  of  the  trunk ;  but  in  nearly  all  cases  where  mention  is  made  of  the 


506  American  Forest  Trees 

wood  of  this  tree,  it  refers  to  the  roots.  These  consist  of  enlargements 
or  stools,  often  protruding  considerably  above  the  ground.  If  the  area 
has  been  visited  repeatedly  by  fire,  the  roots  are  generally  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  tops.  In  that  respect  they  resemble  mesquite, 
except  that  the  enlarged  root  of  mesquite  penetrates  far  beneath  the 
surface  while  that  of  mountain  laurel  remains  just  below  the  surface  or 
rises  partly  above  it. 

The  utilization  of  mountain  laurel  is  not  confined  to  the  trunks 
which  reach  tree  size.  Generally  it  is  the  root  that  is  wanted.  Roots 
are  usually  sold  by  weight,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  measiu-ing  them 
as  lumber  or  even  by  the  cord.  The  annual  product  of  this  material  in 
North  Carolina  alone  amounts  to  about  85,000  pounds,  all  of  which  goes 
to  manufacturers  of  tobacco  pipes  and  cigar  holders.  The  use  of  the 
laurel  root  for  pipes  is  as  old  as  its  use  for  spoons.  Pioneers  who  raised 
and  cured  their  own  tobacco  smoked  it  in  pipes  which  were  their  own 
handiwork.  The  laurel  root  was  selected  then  as  now  because  it  carves 
easily,  is  not  inclined  to  split,  does  not  burn  readily,  and  darkens  in  color 
with  age.  It  is  cheap  material,  is  found  throughout  an  extensive  region, 
and  the  supply  is  so  large  that  exhaustion  in  the  near  future  is  not  anti- 
cipated. 

The  wood  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  many  small  articles 
other  than  tobacco  pipes.  Paper  knives,  small  rulers,  turned  boxes  for 
pins  and  buttons,  trays,  plaques,  penholders,  handles  for  buckets, 
dippers,  and  firewood,  are  among  the  uses  for  which  laurel  is  found  suit- 
able. 

It  is  of  no  small  importance  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  is  often 
seen  growing  in  clumps  and  borders  in  public  parks  and  private  yards, 
where  its  evergreen  foliage  and  its  bloom  make  it  a  valuable  shrub. 
It  is  planted  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  this  country. 

Great  Laurel  (Rhododendron  maximum)  is  also  in  the  heath 
family.  More  than  two  hundred  species  of  rhododendron  are  known,  and 
seventeen  are  in  this  country,  but  only  one  attains  tree  size.  The  generic 
name  means  "rose  tree,"  and  the  name  is  well  selected.  The  flowers  are 
the  most  conspicuous  feature  belonging  to  this  species,  and  few  wild 
trees  or  shrubs  equal  it  for  beauty.  It  is  not  native  much  west  of  the 
Alleghany  mountains,  but  grows  north  and  east  to  Nova  Scotia.  It  is 
at  its  best  among  the  mountains,  thrives  in  deep  ravines  where  the  shade 
is  dense,  and  on  steep  slopes  and  stony  mountain  tops.  It  forms 
extensive  thickets  which  are  often  so  deep  and  tangled  that  it  is  difficult 
to  pass  through  them.  This  laurel  is  seldom  found  growing  on  limestone. 
It  reaches  its  largest  size  in  the  South.  Trees  thirty  or  forty  feet  high 
and  a  foot  in  diameter  occur  in  favored  localities.     It  grows.on  the  Alle- 


American  Forest  Trees  507 

ghany  mountains  in  West  Virginia  at  an  elevation  exceeding  4,000  feet 
and  there  forms  vast  thickets.  Some  use  is  made  of  the  wood  for  en- 
graving blocks  and  as  tool  handles.  It  is  hard,  strong,  brittle,  of  slow 
growth,  and  light  clear  brown.  It  is  frequently  planted  in  parks  in  this 
country  and  Europe,  and  three  or  more  varieties  are  distinguished  in 
cultivation.  This  laurel's  leaves  have  a  peculiar  habit  of  shrinking  and 
rolling  up  when  the  thermometer  falls  to  zero  or  near  it.  Among  the 
names  applied  to  it  are  great  laurel,  rose  bay,  dwarf  rose  bay  tree,  wild 
rose  bay,  bigleaf  laiyel,  deer  tongue,  laurel,  spoon  hutch,  and  rhododen- 
dron. 

Catawba  Rhododendron  (Rhododendron  caiawbiense)  is  a  rare, 
large-flowered  species  of  the  mountain  regions  from  West  Virginia  south- 
ward to  Georgia  and  Alabama.  The  wood  is  not  put  to  use,  and  the 
species  is  chiefly  valuable  as  an  ornamental  shrub.  It  seldom  reaches 
large  size. 

SouRWOOD  (Oxydendrum  arboreum)  follows  the  Alleghany  moun- 
tain ranges  south  from  Pennsylvania,  and  extends  into  Florida,  reaching 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  Virginia,  and  Indiana,  Tennessee,  and  Louisiana 
westward.  The  best  development  of  the  species  is  found  among  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Big  Smoky  mountains  in  Tennessee.  It  is  called 
sorrel-tree,  sour  gum,  and  soiur  gum  bush,  on  account  of  the  acidity  of 
the  leaves  when  chewed.  Arrow-wood,  another  name,  refers  to  the  long, 
straight  stems  between  the  whorls  of  branches  of  young  trees — those 
three  or  four  feet  high.  The  stems  are  of  proper  size  for  arrows,  and 
amateiur  bowmen  use  them.  Those  who  designate  the  tree  as  lily-of-the- 
valley  have  in  mind  the  flowers.  The  shape  suggests  an  opening  lily, 
but  the  size  does  not.  The  flower  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  but 
panicles  several  inches  long  are  covered  with  them.  They  open  in  July 
and  August,  and  in  September  the  fruit  is  ripe.  The  seed  is  pale  brown 
and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. 

The  sourwood  tree  at  its  best  is  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high  and  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  bark  of  young  trees  is 
smooth,  but  on  mature  trunks  it  resembles  the  exceedingly  rough 
bark  of  an  old  black  gum.  In  fact,  many  people  suppose  this  tree 
to  be  black  gum,  never  having  noticed  the  difference  of  leaf,  fruit,  and 
flower.  The  genus  consists  of  a  single  species.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
hard,  compact,  and  it  takes  good  polish.  The  medullary  rays 
are  numerous,  but  thin,  and  they  contribute  little  or  nothing  to 
the  figiu-e  of  the  wood.  The  annual  rings  show  little  difference  between 
springwood  and  summerwood,  and  consequently  produce  poor  figure 
when  the  lumber  is  sawed  tangentially.  The  pores  are  many  and  small 
and  are  regularly  distributed  through  the  yearly  ring.    Heartwood  is 


508  American  Forest  Trees 

brown,  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  lighter.  The  strength  and  elasticity 
of  sonrwood  are  moderate.  The  wood  is  made  into  sled  nmners  in  some 
of  the  mountain  districts  where  it  occurs,  but  no  particular  qualities  fit  it 
for  that  use.  It  is  occasionally  employed  for  machinery  bearings.  It 
has  been  reported  for  mallets  and  mauls,  but  since  it  is  not  very 
well  suited  for  those  articles,  the  conclusion  is  that  those  who  so  report 
it  have  confused  it  with  black  gum  which  it  resembles  in  the  living 
tree,  but  not  much  in  the  wood.  Small  handles  are  made  of  it,  and 
it  gives  good  service,  provided  great  strength  and  stiffness  are  not 
requu-ed.  Sourwood  is  not  abundant  anywhere,  and  seldom  are  more 
than  a  few  trees  found  in  a  group. 

Tree  Huckleberry  {Vaccinium  arboreum)  is  the  only  tree  form  of  twenty-five 
or  thirty  species  of  huckleberry  in  this  country.  The  cranberry  is  one  of  the  best 
known  species.  The  range  of  tree  huckleberry  extends  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas, 
and  it  reaches  its  largest  size  in  the  latter  state  where  trunks  thirty  feet  high  and  ten 
inches  in  diameter  occur,  but  not  in  great  abundance.  The  fruit  which  this  tree 
bears  has  some  resemblance  to  the  common  huckleberry,  but  is  inferior  in  flavor, 
besides  being  dry  and  granular.  It  ripens  in  October  and  remains  on  the  branches 
most  of  the  winter.  The  fruit  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  dark  and 
lustrous,  and  is  a  conspicuous  and  tempting  bait  for  feathered  inhabitants  of  swamp 
and  forest.  The  bark  of  the  roots  is  sometimes  used  for  medicine,  and  that  from  the 
trunk  for  tanning,  but  it  is  too  scarce  to  become  important  in  the  leather  industry. 
The  tree  is  known  in  different  parts  of  its  range  as  farkleberry,  sparkleberry,  myrtle 
berry,  bluet,  and  in  North  Carolina  it  is  known  as  gooseberry.  The  wood  is  hard, 
heavy,  and  very  compact;  is  liable  to  warp,  tvi'ist,  and  check  in  drying;  polishes  with 
a  fine,  satiny  finish.  Medullary  rays  are  numerous,  broad,  and  conspicuous;  wood 
Ught  brown,  tinged  with  red.     Small  articles  are  turned  from  it. 


OSAGE  ORANGE 


OSAGE  ORANGE 

{Toxylon  Pomiferum) 

OSAGE  orange  belongs  to  the  mulberry  family.  There  are  fifty- 
four  genera,  three  of  which  are  found  in  the  United  States,  the 
mulberries,  the  Osage  orange,  and  the  figs.  Osage  orange  is  known  by 
several  names,  the  principal  one  of  which  refers  to  the  Osage  Indians, 
who  formerly  lived  in  the  region  where  the  tree  grows.  It  is  called 
orange  because  the  fruit,  which  is  from  two  to  five  inches  in  diameter, 
looks  like  a  green  orange,  but  it  is  unfit  for  food.  In  its  range  most  people 
call  it  bodark  or  bodock,  that  being  a  corruption  of  the  name  by  which 
the  French  designated  it,  bois  d'arc,  which  means  bow  wood.  It  was 
so  called  from  the  fact  that  Indians  made  bows  of  it  when  they  could  get  ■ 
nothing  better.  Its  value  as  material  for  bows  seems  to  be  traditional 
and  greatly  overestimated.  It  is  lower  in  elasticity  than  white  oak  and 
very  much  lower  than  hickory,  and,  theoretically,  at  least,  it  is  not  well 
suited  for  bows.  The  wood  is  known  also  as  mock  orange,  bow-wood, 
Osage  apple  tree,  yellow-wood,  hedge,  and  hedge  tree.  The  last  name  is 
given  because  many  hedges  have  been  made  of  it. 

Osage  orange  has  been  planted  in  perhaps  every  state  of  the  Union, 
and  grows  successfully  in  most  of  them.  It  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  American  forest  trees,  but  its  distribution  has  been  chiefly 
artificial.  It  was  found  originally  in  a  very  restricted  region,  from  which 
it  was  carried  for  hedge  and  ornamental  planting  far  and  wide.  Its 
natural  home,  to  which  it  was  confined  when  first  discovered,  embraced 
little  more  than  ten  thousand  square  miles,  and  probably  half  of  that 
small  area  produced  no  trees  of  commercial  size.  Its  northern  limit  was 
near  Atoka,  Oklahoma,  its  southern  a  little  south  of  Dallas,  Texas;  a 
range  north  and  south  of  approximately  one  hundred  miles.  Its  broad- 
est extent  east  and  west  was  along  Red  River,  through  Cooke,  Grayson, 
Fanning,  Lamar,  and  Red  River  counties,  Texas,  about  120  miles. 
Some  Osage  orange  of  commercial  size  grew  outside  the  area  thus  de- 
limited, but  no  large  amount.  Much  of  that  region,  particularly  south 
of  Red  River,  was  prairie,  without  timber  of  any  kind;  but  scattered  here 
and  there  were  belts,  strips,  thickets,  and  clumps  of  Osage  orange  mixed 
with  other  species.  On  the  very  best  of  its  range,  and  before  disturbed 
by  white  men,  this  wood  seldom  formed  piu-e  stands  of  as  much  as  100 
acres  in  one  body,  and  since  the  country's  settlement,  the  stands  have 
become  smaller  or  have  been  entirely  cleared  to  make  farms.  All 
accounts  agree  that  the  Osage  orange  reaches  its  highest  development  on 
the  fertile  lands  along  Boggy  and  Blue  rivers  in  Oklahoma,  though  fine 


512  American  Forest  Trees 

bodies  of  it  once  grew  south  of  the  Red  River  in  Texas,  and  much  is  still 
cut  there  though  the  choicest  long  ago  disappeared.  Few  trees  are  less 
exacting  in  soil,  yet  when  it  can  make  choice  it  chooses  the  best.  In  its 
natural  habitat  it  holds  its  place  in  the  black,  fertile  flats  and  valleys, 
and  is  seldom  found  on  sandy  soil.  It  is  not  a  swamp  tree,  though  it  is 
uninjured  by  occasional  floods.  The  tracts  where  it  grows  are  some- 
times called  "bodark  swamps,"  though  marshy  in  wet  weather  only. 

The  tree  attains  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  when  at  its  best,  but 
specimens  that  tall  are  unusual.  Trunks  are  occasionally  two  or  three 
feet  in  diameter,  but  that  size  is  very  rare.  At  the  present  time  probably 
ten  trees  under  a  foot  in  diameter  are  cut  for  every  one  over  that  size. 

Rough  and  unshapely  as  Osage  trees  are,  they  have  been  more 
closely  utilized  than  most  timbers.  Fence  posts  are  the  largest  item.  The 
board  measure  equivalent  of  the  annual  cut  of  posts  has  been  placed  at 
18,400,000.  The  posts  are  shipped  to  surrounding  states,  in  addition 
to  fencing  nearly  40,000  square  miles  of  northern  Texas  and  southern 
Oklahoma.  Houseblocks  constitute  another  important  use.  These  are 
short  posts  set  under  the  corners  of  buildings  in  place  of  stone  founda- 
tions. The  annual  demand  for  this  kind  of  material  amounts  to  about 
1,000,000  board  feet.  An  equal  amount  goes  into  bridge  piling.  The 
principal  demand  comes  from  highway  commissioners.  Telephone 
poles  take  a  considerable  quantity,  and  insulator  pins  more. 

One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  Osage  orange  is  found  in  the 
manufacture  of  wagon  wheels,  though  the  total  quantity  so  used  is 
smaller  than  that  demanded  for  fence  posts. 

About  10,000  or  12,000  wagons  with  Osage  orange  felloes  or  rims 
are  manufactured  annually  in  the  United  States.  That  use  of  the  wood 
is  not  new.  It  began  in  a  small  way  soon  after  the  settlement  of  the 
region.  At  first  the  work  was  hand-done  by  local  blacksmiths  and 
wheelwrights.  They  found  the  wood  objectionable,  from  the  workman's 
standpoint,  on  account  of  its  extreme  hardness  and  the  difficulty  of 
cutting  it.  That  objection  is  still  urged  against  it  though  machines  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  hand  tools  of  former  times.  Saws  and  bits  are 
quickly  dulled,  and  the  cost  of  grinding,  repair,  and  replacement  in- 
creases the  operator's  expense  much  above  ordinary  mill  outlay  for  such 
purposes.  On  that  account  many  prefer  to  work  the  wood  green.  It  is 
then  softer,  and  cuts  more  smoothly.  If  seasoned  before  it  is  passed 
through  the  machines  it  is  liable  to  "pull."  That  term  is  used  to  indi- 
cate a  rough-breaking  of  the  fibres  by  the  impact  of  knives.  The  readi- 
ness with  which  the  wood  splits  calls  for  extraordinary  care  in  boring  it, 
and  many  felloes  are  spoiled  in  finishing  them  to  receive  the  tenoned 
ends  of  spokes. 


American  Forest  Trees  513 

A  number  of  commodities  are  made  of  Osage  orange  but  in  quanti- 
ties so  small  that  the  total  wood  used  does  not  constitute  a  serious  drain 
upon  the  supply.  Police  clubs  are  occasionally  made  as  a  by-product 
of  the  rim  mill.  Some  years  ago  at  the  Texas  state  fair  at  Dallas,  a  piano 
was  exhibited,  all  visible  wood  being  Osage  orange,  handsomely  polished. 
The  rich  color  of  this  wood  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  American 
species.  When  oiled  it  retains  the  yellow  color,  but  unoiled  wood  fades 
on  long  exposure.  Clock  cases  of  Osage  have  been  manufactured  locally, 
and  gun  stocks  made  of  it  are  much  admired,  though  the  wood's  weight 
is  an  argument  against  it  for  gun  stocks.  Canes  split  from  straight- 
grained  blocks,  and  shaved  and  polished  by  hand,  are  occasionally  met 
with,  but  none  manufactured  by  machinery  have  been  reported.  Saw- 
mills in  the  Osage  orange  region  use  the  wood  as  rollers  for  carriages  and 
off-bearing  tables.  Rustic  rockers  and  benches  of  the  wood,  with  the 
bark  or  without  it,  figm-e  to  a  small  extent  in  local  trade.  It  has  been 
tried  experimentally  for  parquetry  floors,  with  satisfactory  results. 
Sections  of  streets  have  been  paved  with  Osage  orange  blocks.  The 
wood  wears  well  and  is  nearly  proof  against  decay,  but  no  considerable 
demand  for  such  blocks  appears  ever  to  have  existed.  Railroads  which 
were  built  through  the  region  years  ago  cut  Osage  for  ties  and  culvert 
timber,  but  no  such  use  is  now  reported.  The  demand  for  the  wood  for 
tobacco  pipes  is  increasing,  more  than  100,000  blocks  for  such  pipes 
having  been  sold  diu-ing  a  single  year. 

Osage  orange  weighs  48.21  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  twenty- 
eight  per  cent  stronger  than  white  oak,  but  is  not  quite  as  stiff,  is  very 
brittle,  and  under  heavy  impact,  will  crumble.  For  that  reason,  Osage 
wagon  felloes  will  not  stand  rocky  roads.  The  bark  is  sometimes  used 
for  tanning,  and  the  wood  for  dyeing. 

Red  Mulberry  (Morus  rubra)  is  frequently  spoken  of  simply  as  mulberry,  and 
is  sometimes  called  black  mulberry.  The  full  grown  fruit  is  red,  but  turns  black  or 
very  dark  purple  when  ripe.  The  berry  is  composed  of  a  compact  and  adhering 
cluster  of  drupes,  each  drupe  about  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  long.  What  seems 
to  be  a  single  berry  is  really  an  aggregation  of  very  small  fruits,  each  resembling  a 
tiny  cherry.  The  mulberry  is  naturally  a  forest  tree,  but  it  is  permitted  to  grow 
about  the  margins  of  fields,  and  is  often  planted  in  door  yards  for  its  fruit  and  its 
shade.     It  is  looked  upon  by  many  as  a  tame  species. 

Two  mulberries  grow  naturally  in  this  country.  The  red  species  ranges  from 
Massachusetts  west  to  Kansas,  and  south  to  Texas  and  Florida.  Its  best  growth  is 
found  in  the  lower  Ohio  valley  and  the  southern  foot  hills  of  the  Appalachian  moan- 
tains.  The  largest  trees  are  seventy  feet  high  and  three  or  four  in  diameter.  If  this 
tree  were  abundant  the  wood's  place  in  furniture  and  finish  would  be  important. 
The  heartwood  is  dark,  of  good  figure,  and  fairly  strong.  It  takes  a  fine  polish,  and 
resembles  black  walnut,  though  usually  of  a  little  lighter  shade.  Its  largest  use  is  as 
fence  posts.  It  is  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  effect  when  made  into  furni- 
ture, finish,  and  various  kinds  of  turnery,  is  pleasing.     Farm  tools,  particularly 


514  American  Forest  Trees 

scythe  snaths,  are  made  of  it,  and  it  has  been  reported  for  slack  cooperage  and  boat 
building,  but  such  uses  are  apparently  infrequent.  The  wood  is  evidently  sold  under 
some  other  name,  or  without  a  name,  for  the  total  sawmill  output  in  the  United 
States  is  given  in  government  statistics  at  only  1,000  feet,  which  is  probably  not  one 
per  cent  of  the  cut. 

Mexican  Mulberry  (Morus  celtidifolia)  ranges  from  southern  Texas  to  Ari- 
zona. Trees  are  seldom  more  than  thirty  feet  high  and  one  in  diameter.  The  berry 
is  about  half  an  inch  long,  black,  and  made  up  of  a  hundred  or  more  very  small  drupes. 
It  is  edible,  but  its  taste  is  insipid.  The  wood  is  heavy  and  is  of  dark  orange  or 
dark  brown  color.  It  is  suitable  for  small  turnery  and  other  articles,  but  no  reports 
of  uses  for  it  have  been  found.  The  tree  is  occasionally  planted  for  its  fruit  by 
Mexicans,  but  Americans  care  little  for  it. 

Two  foreign  mulberries  have  been  extensively  planted  in  this  country,  and  in 
some  localities  they  are  running  wild  and  are  mistaken  for  native  species.  One  is 
the  white  mulberry  {Morus  alba),  a  native  of  China;  the  other  is  the  paper  mulberry 
(Broussonetia  papyrifcra)  a  different  genus,  but  of  the  same  family.  It  is  a  native  of 
Japan,  and  has  been  naturalized  in  some  of  the  southern  states.  Nine  varieties  of 
the  white  mulberry  have  been  distinguished  in  cultivation. 


PERSIMMON 


PERSIMMON 

I  Diospyros  Virginiana) 

PERSIMMON  belongs  to  the  ebony  family,  and  the  family  has  con- 
tributed to  the  civilization  of  the  human  race  since  very  early  times. 
Some  of  the  oldest  furniture  in  existence,  that  which  was  found  hidden 
in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Egypt,  is  ebony,  and  there  is  evidence  among  the 
old  records  in  the  land  of  the  Nile  that  the  Egyptians  made  voyages 
southward  through  the  Red  sea  and  brought  back  cargoes  of  ebony  from 
Punt,  a  region  in  eastern  Africa.  The  name  ebony  is  believed  to  be 
derived  from  a  Hebrew  word,  probably  brought  to  Palestine  by  some  of 
Solomon's  captains  who  traded  along  the  south  coast  of  Asia  or  the  east 
coast  of  Africa  about  the  time  of  the  building  of  the  first  temple.  The 
botanical  name  for  the  genus  (diospyros)  is  made  up  of  two  words 
meaning  "Jupiter's  wheat" — supposed  to  be  a  reference  to  the  value  of 
persimmons  as  food.  The  name,  however,  is  not  as  old  as  the  Hebrew 
word,  nor  is  the  Hebrew  as  old  as  the  references  to  ebony  in  the  records 
of  Egypt.  A  piece  of  the  old  furniture — not  less  than  4,000  years  old — 
is  still  in  existence.  It  probably  matches  in  age  the  cedar  of  Lebanon 
coffins  in  the  oldest  Egyptian  tombs. 

The  ebony  family  consists  of  five  genera,  one  of  which  is  per- 
simmon (diospyros).  This  genus  consists  of  160  species,  only  two  of 
them  in  the  United  States.  Thus  the  persimmon  trees  of  this  country 
are  a  very  small  part  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong,  but  they  are  a 
highly  respectable  part  of  it.  The  word  persimmon  is  of  Indian  origin, 
and  was  used  by  the  tribes  near  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  original  spelling 
was  "pessimin,"  and  that  was  probably  about  the  pronunciation  given 
it  by  the  aborigines. 

It  has  never  been  called  by  many  names.  It  is  known  as  date 
plum  in  New  Jersey  and  Tennessee,  and  as  possumwood  in  Florida. 
The  avidity  with  which  opossums  feed  on  the  fruit  is  responsible  for  the 
name. 

The  range  of  persimmon  extends  from  Connecticut  to  Florida, 
and  westward  to  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Texas.  It  reaches  its  largest  size 
in  the  South.  It  is  of  vigorous  growth,  spreading  by  means  of  seeds,  and 
also  by  roots.  The  latter  is  the  most  common  method  where  the  ground 
is  open.  Such  situations  as  old,  abandoned  fields  invite  the  spread  of 
persimmons.  Roots  ramify  under  the  ground,  and  sprouts  spring  up, 
often  producing  thickets  of  an  acre  or  more.  Trees  do  not  generally  reach 
large  size  if  they  grow  in  that  way,  but  their  crowded  condition  does  not 
make  them  fruitless  as  can  be  attested  to  by  many  a  boy  who  penetrates 


518  American  Forest  Trees 

the  persimmon  thickets  by  means  of  devious  paths  that  wind   with 
many  a  labyrinthic  turn  which  takes  in  all  that  is  worth  finding. 

The  variation  in  the  quality  of  persimmons  is  greater  than  that  of 
most  wild  fruits.  Nature  usually  sets  a  standard  and  sticks  closely  to 
it,  but  the  rule  is  not  adhered  to  in  the  case  of  persimmons.  Some  are 
twice  as  large  as  others ;  some  are  never  fit  to  eat,  no  matter  how  severely 
or  how  often  they  are  frosted ;  others  require  at  least  one  fierce  frost  to 
soften  their  austerity;  but  some  may  be  eaten  with  relish  without  the 
ameliorating  influence  of  frost. 

The  austerity  of  a  green  persimmon  is  due  to  tannin.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  cultivation  might  remove  some  of  this  objectionable  quality, 
but  no  great  success  has  thus  far  attended  efforts  in  that  direction. 
Japanese  persimmons,  which  are  of  a  different  specie,  are  cultivated 
with  success  in  California. 

The  sizes  of  persimmon  trees  vary  according  to  soil,  climate,  and 
situation.  They  average  rather  small,  but  occasionally  reach  a  height  of 
100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  nearly  two.  Mature  trunks  are  usually  little 
over  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  many  never  reach  that  size. 

The  dry  wood  weighs  49.28  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  about 
the  weight  of  hickory.  It  is  hard,  strong,  compact,  and  is  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish.  The  yearly  rings  are  marked  by  one  or  more  bands  of 
open  ducts,  and  scattered  ducts  occur  in  the  rest  of  the  wood.  The 
medullary  rays  are  thin  and  inconspicuous;  color  of  heartwood  dark 
brown,  often  nearly  black;  the  sapwood  is  light  brown,  and  frequently 
contains  darker  spots. 

The  value  of  persimmon  depends  largely  upon  the  proportion  of 
sapwood  to  heartwood.  That  was  the  case  formerly  more  than  it  is 
now;  for  until  recent  years  the  heartwood  of  persimmon  was  generally 
thrown  away,  and  the  sapwood  only  was  wanted ;  but  demand  for  the 
heart  has  recently  increased.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  propor- 
tion of  heartwood  to  sapwood  in  different  trees.  It  does  not  seem  to  be 
a  matter  of  size,  nor  wholly  of  age.  Small  trunks  sometimes  have 
more  heart  than  large  ones.  A  tree  a  hundred  years  old  may  have 
heartwood  scarcely  larger  than  a  lead  pencil,  and  occasionally  there  is 
none.     In  other  instances  the  heart  is  comparatively  large. 

Persimmon  has  never  been  a  wood  of  many  uses,  as  hickory  and 
oak  have  been.  In  early  times  it  was  considered  valuable  almost 
wholly  on  account  of  its  fruit,  and  that  had  no  commercial  value,  as  it 
was  seldom  offered  for  sale  in  the  market.  In  the  language  of  the 
southern  negroes  who  fully  appreciated  the  fruit,  it  was  "something 
good  to  run  at" — meaning  that  the  ripe  persimmons  were  gathered  and 
eaten  from  the  trees  while  they  lasted,  but  that  few  were  preserved. 


American  Forest  Trees  519 

It  is  recorded  that  the  "small  wheel"  of  the  pioneer  cabins  was 
occasionally  made  of  persimmon  wood.  The  wheel  so  designated  was 
the  machine  on  which  wool  and  flax  were  spun  by  the  people  in  their 
homes.  Spinning  wheels  were  of  two  kinds,  one  large,  with  the  operator 
walking  to  and  fro,  the  other  small,  with  the  operator  sitting.  It  was 
the  small  wheel  which  was  sometimes  made  of  persimmon.  There  is 
no  apparent  reason  why  it  should  have  been  made  of  that  wood  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  one  of  a  dozen  others. 

The  demand  for  persimmon  in  a  serious  way  began  with  its  use  as 
shuttles  in  textile  factories.  Weavers  had  made  shuttles  of  it  for  home 
use  on  hand  looms  for  many  years  before  the  demand  came  from  power 
looms  where  the  shuttles  were  thro^vn  to  and  fro  by  machinery.  Up  to 
some  thirty  years  ago,  shuttles  for  factories  were  generally  made  of 
Turkish  boxwood,  but  the  supply  fell  short  and  the  advance  in  price 
caused  a  search  for  substitutes.  Two  satisfactory  shuttlewoods  were 
found  in  this  country,  persimmon  and  dogwood.  The  demand  came 
not  only  from  textile  mills  in  America  but  from  those  of  Europe.  The 
manufacture  of  shuttle  blocks  became  an  industry  of  considerable 
importance. 

Persimmon  wood  is  suitable  for  shuttles  because  it  wears  smooth, 
is  hard,  strong,  tough,  and  of  proper  weight.  Most  woods  that  have 
been  tried  for  this  article  fail  on  account  of  splintering,  splitting,  quickly 
wearing  out,  or  wearing  rough.  The  shuttle  is  not  regarded  as  satis- 
factory imless  it  stands  1,000  hours  of  actual  work.  Some  woods  which 
are  satisfactory  for  many  other  purposes  will  not  last  an  hour  as  a 
shuttle. 

The  manufacture  of  shuttles,  after  the  square  has  been  roughed  out, 
requires  twenty-two  operations.  Probably  more  shuttlewood  comes 
from  Arkansas  than  from  any  other  section,  though  a  dozen  or  more 
states  contribute  persimmon.  The  total  sawmill  cut  of  this  wood  in  the 
United  States  is  about  2,500,000  feet,  but  this  does  not  include  that 
which  never  passes  through  a  sawmill. 

The  wood  has  other  uses.  It  has  lately  met  demand  from  manu- 
facturers of  golf  heads.  Skewers  are  made  of  it  in  North  Carolina,  and 
billiard  cues  and  mallets  in  Massachusetts. 

The  heartwood  is  dark  and  shuttle  makers  and  golfhead  manu- 
facturers will  not  have  it.  Until  recently  it  was  customary  to  throw  it 
away,  because  no  sale  for  it  could  be  found.  It  is  now  knowTi  to  be 
suitable  for  parquet  flooring  and  for  brush  backs,  and  the  demand  for 
the  heartwood  is  as  reliable  as  for  the  sapwood.  A  little  of  the  dark 
wood  is  cut  in  veneer  and  is  employed  in  panel  work,  and  other  is  used 
in  turnery. 


520  American  Forest  Trees 

The  seeds  of  persimmon  furnished  one  of  the  early  substitutes  for 
cofifee  in  backwoods  settlements  when  the  genuine  article  could  not  be 
obtained.  They  were  parched  and  pounded  until  sufficiently  pulverized. 
During  the  Civil  war  many  a  confederate  camp  in  the  South  was  fra- 
grant with  the  aroma  of  persimmon  seed  coffee,  after  the  soldiers  had 
added  the  fruit  to  their  rations  of  combread. 

Mexican  Persimmon  (Diospyros  icxana)  grows  in  Texas  and 
Mexico.  It  is  most  abundant  in  southern  and  western  Texas,  where  it 
suits  itself  to  different  soils,  is  foimd  on  rich  moist  ground  near  the  borders 
of  prairies,  and  also  in  rocky  canyons  and  dry  mesas.  The  largest  trees 
are  fifty  feet  high  and  twenty  inches  in  diameter,  but  trunks  that  large 
are  not  abundant.  The  tree  differs  from  the  eastern  persimmon  in  that 
the  sapwood  is  thinner,  and  the  heartwood  makes  up  a  much  greater 
proportion  of  the  trunk;  the  uses  are  consequently  different,  since  it  is 
taken  for  its  dark  wood,  the  eastern  tree  for  its  light-colored  sap.  The 
fruit  of  the  Mexican  persimmon  is  little  esteemed.  It  is  small,  black, 
and  the  thin  layer  of  pulp  between  the  skin  and  the  seed  is  insipid. 
Until  fully  ripe  it  is  exceedingly  austere.  The  Mexicans  in  the  Rio 
Grande  valley  make  a  dye  of  the  persimmons  and  use  it  to  color  sheep 
skins.  The  fruit's  supply  of  tannin  probably  contributes  to  the  tanning 
as  well  as  the  dyeing  of  the  sheep  pelts.  The  wood  is  heavier  than 
eastern  persimmon,  and  has  more  than  three  fold  more  ashes  in  a  cord  of 
wood,  amounting  to  about  160  pounds.  The  bark  is  thin  and  the  trunk 
gnarled.  The  dark  color  of  the  wood  gives  it  the  name  black  persim- 
mon in  Texas.  Mexicans  call  it  chapote.  Sargent  pronounces  it  the 
best  American  substitute  for  boxwood  for  engraving  purposes,  but  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  used  outside  of  Texas.  The  wood  is  irregular  in 
color,  even  in  the  same  piece,  being  variegated  with  lighter  and  darker 
streaks,  and  cloudy  effects.  It  ought  to  be  fine  brush-back  material. 
It  is  worked  into  tool  handles,  lodge  furniture,  canes,  rules,  pen  holders, 
picture  frames,  curtain  rings,  door  knobs,  parasol  handles,  and  maul 
sticks  for  artists. 


FLOWERING   DOGWOOD 


FLOWERING  DOGWOOD 

{Cornus  Florida) 

THE  dogwood  or  cornel  family  is  old  but  not  numerous.  It  origi- 
nated several  hundred  thousand  years  ago  and  spread  over  much 
of  the  world,  but  preferred  the  temperate  latitudes.  One  species  at  least 
crossed  the  equator  and  established  itself  in  the  highlands  of  Peru. 
There  are  forty  or  fifty  species  in  all,  about  one-third  of  them  in  the 
United  States,  but  most  are  shrubs.  Black  gum  and  tupelo  are  members 
of  the  family,  and  are  giants  compared  with  the  dogwoods.  In  Europe 
the  tree  is  usually  called  cornel,  and  that  has  been  made  the  family  name. 
It  is  a  very  old  word,  coined  by  the  Romans  before  the  days  of  Caesar. 
They  so  named  it  because  it  was  hard  like  horn  {cornus  meaning  horn 
in  the  Latin  language).  They  used  it  as  shafts  of  spears,  and  so  common 
was  that  use  that  when  a  speaker  referred  to  a  spear  he  simply  called  it 
by  the  name  of  the  wood  of  the  handle  or  shaft,  as  when  Virgil  described 
a  combat  which  was  supposed  to  have  occurred  800  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  used  the  words:  "Clogged  in  the  wound  the  Italian 
cornel  stood." 

The  qualities  of  this  wood  which  led  to  important  uses  among  the 
Romans,  have  always  made  dogwood  a  valuable  material.  Civilized 
nations  do  not  need  it  for  spear  shafts,  but  they  have  other  demands 
which  call  for  large  amounts. 

The  flowering  dogwood  has  other  names  in  this  country.  It  is 
generally  known  simply  as  dogwood,  but  it  is  called  boxwood  in  Connecti- 
cut, Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Mississippi,  Michigan,  Kentucky,  and 
Indiana;  false  box-dogwood  in  Kentucky;  New  England  boxwood  in 
Tennessee ;  flowering  cornel  in  Rhode  Island ;  and  cornel  in  Texas. 

Its  range  extends  from  Massachusetts  through  Ontario  and  Mich- 
igan to  Missouri,  south  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Texas.  The  area  where 
it  grows  includes  about  800,000  square  miles.  It  is  most  common  and 
of  largest  size  in  the  South,  comparatively  rare  in  the  North,  generally 
occurs  in  the  shade  of  taller  trees,  and  prefers  well-drained  soil,  but  is  not 
particular  whether  it  is  fertile  or  thin. 

The  dogwood  is  valuable  as  ornament  and  for  its  wood.  It  was 
formerly  a  source  of  medicine,  from  roots,  bark,  and  flowers;  but  it  seems 
to  have  been  largely  displaced  by  other  drugs;  was  once  considered  a 
good  substitute  for  quinine,  that  use  having  been  learned  from  Indian 
doctors.  The  Indians  dug  roots  for  a  scarlet  dye  with  which  the  vain 
warrior  stained  escutcheons  on  buckskin,  and  colored  porcupine  quills 
and  bald  eagle  feathers  for  decorating  his  moccasins  and  his  hair. 

523 


524  American  Forest  Trees 

The  dogwood  varies  in  size  from  a  shrub  with  many  branches  to  a 
tree  forty  feet  high,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  with  a  flat  but 
shapely  crown.  The  trunk  rises  as  a  shaft  with  little  taper,  imtil  the 
first  branches  are  reached.  All  the  branches  start  at  the  same  place, 
and  the  trunk  ends  abruptly — divides  into  branches.  Flowers  are  an 
important  part  of  the  tree,  as  might  be  inferred  from  the  prominence 
given  them  in  the  tree's  names.  In  the  South  the  flowers  appear  in 
March,  in  the  North  in  May,  and  in  both  regions  before  the  opening  of 
the  leaves.  The  flowers  on  vigorous  trees  are  three  or  four  inches  across, 
white,  and  very  showy.  A  dogwood  tree  in  full  bloom  against  a  hillside 
in  spring  is  a  most  conspicuous  object,  and  is  justly  admired  by  all  who 
have  appreciation  of  beauty.  The  flowers  fall  as  leaves  appear,  and  for 
some  months  the  tree  occupies  its  little  space  in  the  forest  unobserved ; 
but  in  the  autumn  it  biu-sts  again  into  glory,  and  while  not  quite  as  con- 
spicuous an  object  as  when  in  bloom,  it  is  no  less  worthy  of  admiration. 
The  fall  of  the  leaves  reveals  the  brilliant  scarlet  fruit  which  ladens  the 
branches.  The  berries  are  just  large  enough  for  a  good  mouthful  for  a 
bird,  but  birds  spare  them  until  fully  ripe  to  the  har-zest,  and  they  then 
harvest  them  very  rapidly.  The  tree  is  thus  permitted  to  display  its 
fruit  a  considerable  time  before  yielding  it  to  the  feathered  inhabitants 
of  the  air  whose  mission  in  forest  economy  is  to  scatter  the  seeds  of  trees, 
when  nature  provides  the  seeds  themselves  with  no  wings  for  flying. 

The  two  periods  in  the  year  when  dogwood  is  highly  ornamental, 
the  flowers  in  spring  before  leaves  appear,  and  fruit  in  autumn  after 
leaves  fall,  are  responsible  for  this  tree's  importance  in  ornamental 
planting.  It  is  a  common  park  tree,  but  it  is  small,  generally  not  more 
than  fifteen  feet  high,  and  it  occupies  subordinate  places  in  the  plans  of 
the  landscape  garden.  It  is  a  filler  between  oaks,  pines,  and  spruces, 
and  it  passes  unnoticed,  except  when  in  bloom  and  in  fruit. 

Dogwood  is  about  four  pounds  per  cubic  foot  heavier  than  white 
oak,  has  the  same  breaking  strength,  and  is  lower  in  elasticity.  It  is 
quite  commonly  believed  that  this  tree  has  no  heartwood,  but  the  belief 
is  erroneous.  It  seldom  has  much,  and  small  trunks  often  none;  but 
when  dogwood  reaches  maturity  it  develops  heart.  Sometimes  the 
heartwood  is  no  larger  than  a  lead  pencil  in  trunks  forty  or  fifty  years 
old.  The  heart  is  brown,  sapwood  is  white,  and  is  the  part  wanted  by 
the  users  of  dogwood.  Annual  rings  are  obscure  and  it  is  a  tree  of  slow 
growth.  The  wood  is  as  nearly  without  figure  as  any  in  this  country. 
It  seldom  or  never  goes  to  sawmills.  The  logs  are  too  small.  Most  of 
the  supply  is  bought  by  manufacturers  of  shuttles  and  golf  stick  heads, 
in  this  country  and  Europe.  They  purchase  it  by  the  cord  or  piece.  It 
does  not  figure  much  in  any  part  of  the  lumber  business,  but  is  cut  and 


American  Forest  Trees  525 

marketed  in  ways  peculiar  to  itself.  Log  cutters  in  hardwood  forests 
pay  little  attention  to  it.  The  dogwood  harvest  comes  principally  from 
southern  states.  Village  merchants  are  the  chief  collectors,  and  they 
sell  to  contractors  who  ship  to  buyers  in  the  manufacturing  centers. 
The  village  merchants  buy  from  farmers,  who  cut  a  stick  here  and 
there  as  they  find  it  in  woodlots,  forests,  or  by  the  wayside,  on  their 
own  land  or  somebody  else's.  When  the  cutter  next  drives  to  town  he 
throws  his  few  dogwoods  in  the  wagon,  and  trades  them  to  the  store 
keeper  for  groceries  or  other  merchandise.  It  is  small  business,  but  in 
the  aggregate  it  brings  together  enough  dogwood  to  supply  the  trade. 

Dogwood  has  many  uses,  but  none  other  approaches  shuttle  making 
and  golf  head  manufacture  in  importance.  The  wood  is  made  into 
brush  blocks,  wedges,  engraver's  blocks,  tool  handles,  machinery 
bearings  as  a  substitute  for  lignum-vitae,  small  hubs,  and  many  kinds  of 
turnery  and  other  small  articles. 

Western  Dogwood  (Corniis  nuttallii)  is  a  larger,  taller  tree  than 
the  eastern  flowering  dogwood.  A  height  of  100  feet  is  claimed  for  it  in 
the  low  country  along  the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  but  there  are  no 
authentic  reports  of  trees  so  large  anywhere  south  of  the  boundary 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States.  Its  height  ranges  from  twenty 
to  fifty  feet,  and  its  diameter  from  six  to  twenty  inches.  The  appearance 
is  much  the  same  as  its  eastern  relative.  Its  berries  are  red,  and  grow 
in  clusters  of  forty  or  less;  the  bark  on  old  trunks  is  rough,  but  is  smooth 
on  those  of  medium  size ;  the  flowers  are  generally  described  as  very  large 
and  showy,  but  the  true  flower  is  quite  an  inconspicuous  affair,  being  a 
small,  greenish-yellow,  button-like  cluster,  siurounded  by  four  or  six 
snowy-white  or  sometimes  pinkish  scales  which  are  popularly  but 
erroneously  supposed  to  form  a  portion  of  the  real  flower.  The  western 
dogwood  in  its  native  forest  often  puts  out  flowers  in  autumn;  is  well 
supplied  with  foliage  which  assumes  red  and  orange  colors  in  the  fall 
when  the  showy  berries  are  at  their  best.  However,  the  tree  has  not  yet 
won  its  way  into  the  good  graces  of  landscape  gardeners,  and  has  not 
been  much  planted  in  parks.  It  wants  some  of  the  good  points  possessed 
by  the  flowering  dogwood.  The  western  tree  shows  to  best  advantage  in 
its  native  forest  where  it  thrives  on  gentle  mountain  slopes  and  in  low 
bottoms,  valleys,  and  gulches,  provided  the  soil  is  well  drained  and  rich. 
It  runs  southward  fifteen  hundred  miles  from  Vancouver  island  to  south- 
ern California.  It  cares  little  for  sunshine,  and  often  is  found  growing 
nicely  in  dense  shade.  Seedlings  do  better  where  shade  is  deep.  The 
wood  is  lighter  but  somewhat  stronger  than  that  of  the  flowering  dog- 
wood; is  pale  reddish-brown,  with  thick  sapwood;  is  hard,  and  checks 
badly  in  seasoning.     Mature  trees  are  from  100  to  150  years. 


526 


American  Forest  Trees 


Blue  Dogwood  {Conius  altemifolia)  is  given  that  name  because 
of  the  blue  fruit  it  bears.  It  has  a  number  of  other  names,  among  them 
being  purple  dogwood,  green  osier,  umbrella  tree,  pigeonberry,  and 
alternate-leaved  dogwood,  the  last  being  simply  a  translation  of  its 
botanical  name.  It  grows  in  more  northern  latitudes  than  the  flowering 
dogwood,  and  does  not  range  as  far  south.  It  is  found  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Alabama,  and  westward  to  Minnesota,  but  its  southern  habitat 
lies  along  the  Appalachian  mountain  ranges.  It  attains  size  and  assumes 
form  similar  to  the  flowering  dogwood.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard, 
brown,  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  white.  It  is  a  deep  forest  tree,  but 
has  been  domesticated  in  a  few  instances  where  it  has  been  planted  as 
ornament.  The  wood  seems  to  possess  the  good  qualities  of  flowering 
dogwood,  but  no  reports  of  uses  for  it  have  been  made. 

Two  varieties  of  flowering  dogwood  have  been  produced  by  culti- 
vation, weeping  dogwood  (Corniis  florida  pcndida),  and  red-bract 
dogwood  {Cornus  florida  rubra).  English  cornel  or  dogwood  {Cornus 
mas)  has  been  planted  in  many  parts  of  this  country.  The  so-called 
Jamaica  dogwood  is  not  in  the  dogwood  family. 

Andromeda  (Andromeda  ferruginea)  is  a  small  southern  tree  of  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  in  the  latter  state  is  sometimes  known  as  titi,  though  other 
trees  also  bear  that  name.  The  largest  are  thirty  feet  high,  if  by  chance  one  can  be 
found  standing  erect,  for  most  of  them  prefer  to  sprawl  at  full  length  on  the  ground. 
The  fruit  is  a  small  berry  of  no  value.  The  wood  is  weak,  but  hard  and  sufficiently 
to  receive  fine  polish.     The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red. 


CALIFORNIA  LAUREL 


^Z^'  ...__JBi^l 

r^^»;. 

''^k'''      ~~    ^tNur.^^^^^^^^^  .^tf 

^ 

. 

H^JH-'iSH^ 

%■' 

^^'.."^'^^-.v:*^! 

^  ^ 

ll 

CALIFORNIA  LAUREL 

{Umbellularia  Cadifornica) 

THIS  tree's  range  lies  in  southern  Oregon  and  in  California.  It  is 
a  member  of  the  lam-el  family  and  is  closely  related  to  the  east- 
em  sassafras  and  the  red  and  the  swamp  bays  of  the  southern  states; 
but  it  is  not  near  kin  to  the  eastern  laurels  which,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  do  not  belong  to  the  laurel  family,  notwithstanding  the  names 
they  bear. 

The  people  of  California  and  Oregon  have  several  names  for  this 
interesting  tree.  It  is  known  as  mountain  laurel,  California  bay  tree, 
myrtle  tree,  cajeput,  California  olive,  spice  tree,  lam-el,  bay  tree,  oreo- 
daphne,  and  California  sassafras. 

Those  who  call  it  laiu-el  name  it  on  account  of  its  large,  lustrous, 
thick  leaves  which  adhere  to  the  branches  from  two  to  six  years.  All 
new  leaves  do  not  come  at  once,  as  with  most  trees,  but  appear  a  few  at 
a  time  during  the  whole  summer. 

The  names  which  connect  this  tree  with  sassafras,  spice  and  cajeput 
are  based  on  odor  and  taste.  All  members  of  the  laurel  family  in  this 
country  are  characterized  by  pugent,  aromatic  odor  and  taste,  and  the 
one  under  consideration  shares  these  properties  in  a  remarkable  degree. 
When  the  leaves  and  the  green  bark  are  crushed,  they  give  oflf  a  light, 
volatile  oil  in  follicles  which  float  in  the  air,  like  those  of  an  onion,  and 
when  inhaled  it  produces  severe  pain  over  the  eyes,  and  may  induce 
dizziness  and  violent  sneezing.  Though  the  symptoms  are  alarming  to 
one  who  is  undergoing  the  experience  for  the  first  time,  no  serious 
inconvenience  follows.  Dried  leaves  are  capable  of  producing  a  similar 
effect  but  with  less  violence.  The  California  laurel's  close  relationship 
to  the  camphor  tree  is  readily  believed  by  persons  who  inhale  some  of  the 
oily  spray  from  the  crushed  leaves. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  the  commercial  oil  of  cajeput, 
or  a  substitute  for  it,  by  distilling  the  leaves  and  bark  of  this  laurel.  A 
passable  substitute  has  been  manufactured,  but  it  cannot  be  marketed 
as  the  genuine  article.  By  distilling  the  fruit  a  product  known  as 
umbellulic  acid  has  been  obtained. 

The  California  laurel  carries  a  very  dense  crown  of  leaves.  This 
is  due  partly  to  the  old  crops  which  hang  so  long,  and  to  the  tree's  habit 
of  lengthening  its  leading  shoots  during  the  growing  season,  and  the 
constant  appearance  of  young  leaves  on  the  lengthening  shoots.  It  can 
stand  an  almost  unlimited  amount  of  shade  itself,  and  is  by  no  means 
backward  in  giving  abundance  of  shade  to  small  growth  which  is  trying 

529 


530  American  Forest  Trees 

to  struggle  up  to  light  from  below.  It  delights  in  dense  thickets,  but  it 
prefers  thickets  of  its  own  species. 

Its  fruiting  habits  and  its  disposition  to  occupy  the  damp,  rich 
soil  along  the  banks  of  small  water  coiu-ses,  are  responsible  for  the 
thick  stands.  The  fruit  itself  is  an  interesting  thing.  It  is  yellowish- 
green  in  color,  as  large  as  a  good-sized  olive,  and  looks  much  like  it. 
The  fruit  ripens  in  October,  and  falls  in  time  to  get  the  benefit  of  the 
autumn  rains  which  visit  the  Pacific  coast.  Since  the  trees  generally 
grow  along  gulches,  the  fruit  falls  and  rolls  to  the  bottom.  The  first 
dashing  rain  sends  a  flood  down  the  gulches,  the  laurel  drupes  are  carried 
along  and  are  buried  in  mud  wherever  they  can  find  a  resting  place. 
Germination  takes  place  soon  after.  The  fruit  remains  under  the  mud, 
attached  to  the  roots  of  the  young  plants,  until  the  following  summer. 

The  result  is  that  if  a  laurel  gets  a  foothold  in  a  gulch  through 
which  water  occasionally  flows,  lines  of  young  laurels  will  eventually 
cover  the  banks  of  the  gulch  as  far  down  stream  as  conditions  are 
favorable. 

The  wood  of  California  laurel  weighs  40.60  pounds  per  cubic  foot 
when  kiln-dried.  That  is  nine  pounds  heavier  than  sassafras.  It  is 
very  heavy  when  green  and  sinks  when  placed  in  water.  It  is  hard  and 
very  firm,  rich  yellowish  brown  in  color,  often  beautifully  mottled;  but 
this  applies  to  the  heartwood  only,  and  not  to  the  thick  sapwood. 

Lumbermen  have  discovered  that  the  wood's  color  can  be  material- 
ly changed  by  immersing  the  logs  when  green,  and  leaving  them  sub- 
merged a  long  time.  The  beautiful  "black  myrtle,"  which  has  been  so 
much  admired,  is  nothing  more  than  California  laurel  which  has  under- 
gone the  cold  water  treatment. 

The  annual  rings  of  growth  are  clearly  marked  by  dark  bands  of 
summerwood.  The  rings  are  often  wide,  but  not  always,  for  sometimes 
the  growth  is  very  slow.  The  wood  is  diffuse-porous,  and  the  pores  are 
small  and  not  numerous.  The  wood's  figure  is  brought  out  best  by  tan- 
gential sawing,  as  is  the  case  with  so  many  woods  which  have  clearly- 
marked  rings  but  small  and  obscure  medullary  rays.  Figure  is  not 
uniform;  that  is,  one  trunk  may  produce  a  pattern  quite  different  from 
another.  The  figure  of  some  logs  is  particularly  beautiful ;  these  logs  are 
selected  for  special  purposes.  Sudworth  says  that  none  of  our  hard- 
woods excels  it  in  beautiful  grain  when  finished,  and  Sargent  is  still  more 
emphatic  when  he  declares  that  it  is  "the  most  valuable  wood  produced 
in  the  forests  of  Pacific  North  America  for  interior  finish  of  houses  and 
for  furniture." 

The  wood  of  this  tree  has  more  than  ninety  per  cent  of  the  strength 
of  white  oak,  is  considerably  stiffer,  and  contains  a  smaller  amount  of 


American  Forest  Trees  531 

ash,  weight  for  weight  of  wood.  The  species  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment in  the  rich  valleys  of  southwestern  Oregon,  where,  with  the  broad- 
leaf  maple,  it  forms  a  considerable  part  of  the  forest  growth.  The  largest 
trees  are  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  and  two  to  four  in  diameter.  In 
crowded  stands  the  trunks  are  shapely,  and  often  measure  thirty  or 
forty  feet  to  the  first  limbs;  but  more  commonly  the  trunk  is  short. 

The  boat  yards  in  southwestern  Oregon  were  the  first  to  use  Cali- 
fornia laurel  for  commercial  purposes,  but  early  settlers  made  a  point 
of  procuring  it  for  fuel  when  they  could.  The  oil  in  the  wood  causes  it  to 
bum  with  a  cheerful  blaze,  and  campers  in  the  mountains  consider 
themselves  fortunate  when  they  find  a  supply  for  the  evening  bonfire. 

Shipbuilders  have  drawn  upon  this  wood  for  fifty  years  for  ma- 
terial. It  is  made  into  pilot  wheels,  interior  finish,  cleats,  crossties,  and 
sometimes  deck  planking.  Furniture  makers  long  ago  made  a  specialty 
of  the  wood  for  their  San  Francisco  trade.  For  thirty  years  travelers 
admired  the  superb  furniture  of  the  Palace  hotel  in  that  city,  and  won- 
dered of  what  wood  it  was  made.  It  was  the  California  laurel.  The 
hotel's  furniture  was  hand-made,  or  largely  so,  at  a  time  when  wood- 
working factories  were  few  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  furniture  was 
finally  destroyed  in  the  San  Francisco  earthquake.  Furniture  is  still 
one  of  the  products  made  of  the  wood,  but  the  quantity  is  small.  Other 
products  are  interior  finish ;  fixtures  for  banks,  stores  and  offices ;  musical 
instruments,  including  organs  ;  mathematical  instruments,  and  carpen- 
ters' tools,  including  rulers,  straight-edges,  spirit  levels,  bench  screws 
and  clamps,  and  handles  of  many  kinds. 

Makers  of  novelties  and  small  turnery  find  it  serviceable  for  paper 
knives,  pin  trays,  match  safes,  brush  backs,  and  many  articles  of  like 
kind.  One  of  the  largest  uses  for  it  is  as  walking  beams  for  pumping 
oilwells  in  central  and  southern  California.  The  beauty  of  grain  has 
nothing  to  do  with  this  use. 

Coimtry  blacksmiths  repair  wagons  and  agricultiu-al  implements 
with  this  wood.  Farmers  have  long  employed  it  about  their  prem- 
ises for  posts,  gates,  floors,  and  building  material.  Cooks  flavor  soup 
with  the  leaves,  and  poultrymen  make  henroosts  of  poles,  believing  that 
the  wood's  odor  will  keep  insects  away.  This  is  probably  the  old  sassa- 
fras superstition  carried  west  by  early  California  settlers. 

Red  Bay  {Persea  borbonia)  is  a  southern  member  of  the  laurel  family,  and  close 
akin  to  sassafras  and  the  California  laurel.  The  bark  is  red,  hence  the  name;  but  it  is 
known  also  as  bay  galls,  laurel  tree,  Florida  mahogany,  false  mahogany,  and  sweet 
bay.  It  grows  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  but  is  most  abundant  near  the  coast,  yet  it 
ascends  the  Mississippi  valley  to  Arkansas.  The  leaves  remain  on  the  tree  a  full  year, 
but  turn  yellow  toward  the  last,  in  consequence  of  which  the  species  is  not  evergreen. 
In  shape  and  color  the  leaves  resemble  laurel.     The  fruit  is  a  small,  dark  blue  drupe, 


532  American  Forest  Trees 

with  thin  flesh.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  rather  brittle,  bright  red, 
with  thin,  Ughter-colored  sapwood.  It  was  once  very  popular  in  the  South  for  furni- 
ture. Rare  pieces,  some  150  years  old,  are  still  found  in  southern  homes.  The  wood 
was  exported  prior  to  1741  from  the  Carolinas,  and  the  quantity  seems  to  have  been 
considerable.  It  was  then  regarded  as  a  finer  wood  than  mahogany.  It  was  ex- 
ported to  the  West  Indies,  where  mahogany  was  abundant,  and  was  made  into 
furniture  and  finish  for  the  homes  of  wealthy  planters  and  merchants.  An  old  report 
describes  the  wood  as  resembling  "watered  satin."  It  was  in  early  demand  by  ship- 
builders, but  it  has  now  ceased  to  go  to  boat  yards.  Except  in  rare  instances,  it 
is  not  reported  by  any  wood-using  industries.  In  Texas  a  little  is  made  into  pin 
trays,  small  picture  frames,  canes,  and  shelves.  It  deserves  a  more  important 
place,  for  when  polished  and  finished,  it  is  one  of  the  handsomest  woods  of  this 
country.  Trees  attain  a  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  two  or 
three. 

Swamp  Bay  (Persea  puhescens)  attains  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  but  is 
seldom  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  is  too  small  for  saw  timber.  The  wood  is 
strong,  heavy,  rather  soft,  orange  colored,  streaked  with  brown,  and  not  as  handsome 
as  its  larger  relative,  red  bay,  which  is  associated  with  it  from  North  Carolina  to 
Mississippi.  It  is  an  evergreen  in  some  cases,  but  in  others  the  leaves  turn  yellow 
the  second  spring.  The  black  fruit  is  a  drupe  nearly  an  inch  long.  The  wood  is 
without  attractive  figure,  since  its  medullary  rays  are  obscure,  and  the  aimual  rings 
are  indistinct  and  produce  little  contrast  when  the  trunks  are  sawed  tangentially. 
Color  is  the  chief  attraction  that  can  be  claimed  for  the  wood.  A  little  is  occasionally 
worked  into  interior  finish. 


LOCUST 

(Robin  ia  Pseiidacacia) 

LOCUST  belongs  to  the  pea  family,  known  in  botany  as  Leguminosae* 
In  most  parts  of  its  range  it  is  known  simply  as  locust,  but  in  some 
localiiies  it  is  called  black  locust,  an  allusion  to  the  color  of  the  bark; 
yellow  locust,  descriptive  of  the  heartwood ;  white  locust,  referring  to  the 
bloom;  red  locust,  probably  a  reference  to  the  wood,  and  green  locust  for 
the  same  reason;  acacia  and  false  acacia;  honey  locust,  a  name  which 
belongs  to  another  species;  post  locust,  because  it  has  always  been  a 
favorite  tree  for  fence  posts;  and  pea-flower  locust,  a  reference  to  the 
bloom. 

Several  of  the  names  refer  to  the  color  of  the  wood,  and  seem 
contradictory,  for  yellow,  green,  and  red  are  not  the  same;  yet  the 
names  describe  with  fair  accuracy.  Color  of  the  heartwood  varies  with 
different  trees,  yellow  with  some,  tinged  with  red  with  others,  and 
sometimes  it  might  be  appropriately  called  blue  locust,  for  the  heart- 
wood  is  nearer  that  color  than  any  other. 

The  natural  range  of  locust  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
Appalachian  mountain  ranges  from  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia.  It 
probably  existed  as  a  low  shrub  in  parts  of  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma. 
Its  range  has  been  extended  by  planting  until  it  now  reaches  practically 
all  the  states,  but  is  running  wild  in  only  about  half  of  them.  It  has 
received  a  great  deal  of  attention  from  foresters  and  tree  planters.  It 
attracted  notice  very  early,  because  of  its  hardness,  strength,  and  lasting 
properties.  At  one  time  the  planting  of  locust  came  nearly  being  a  fad. 
In  England  it  was  supposed  that  it  would  rise  to  great  importance  in 
shipbuilding,  and  in  France  it  was  looked  upon  as  no  less  important. 
Books  were  written  on  the  subject  in  both  English  and  French.  All  the 
details  of  planting  and  utilization  were  discussed.  Its  generic  name, 
Robinia,  is  in  honor  of  a  Frenchman,   Robin.     Extravagant  claims 

*This  is  a  very  large  family,  containing  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines,  such  as  locusts, 
acacias,  beans,  and  clovers.  There  are  430  genera  in  the  world,  and  many  times  that 
many  species.  The  United  States  has  seventeen  genera  and  thirty  species  of  the  pea 
family  that  are  large  enough  to  be  classed  as  trees.  Their  common  names  follow: 
Florida  Cat's  Claw,  Huajillo,  Te.xan  Ebony,  Wild  Tamarind,  Huisache,  Texas  Cat's 
Claw,  Devil's  Claw,  Leucaena,  Chalky  Leucsena,  Screwbean,  Mesquite,  Redbud, Texas 
Redbud,  Honey  Locust,  Water  Locust,  Coffeetree,  Horsebean,  Small-leaf  Horsebean, 
Greenbark  Acacia,  Palo  Verde,  Frijolito,  Sophora,  Yellow-wood,  Eysenhardtia,  Indigo 
Thorn,  Locust,  New  Mexican  Locust,  Clammy  Locust,  Sonora  Ironwood,  Jamaica 
Dogwood.  These  species  are  treated  separately  in  the  following  pages,  and  are  given 
space  according  to  their  relative  commercial  importance  in  the  particular  regions 
where  they  grow. 


536  American  Forest  Trees 

were  once  made  for  the  wood.  When  American  ships  were  gaining 
victory  after  victory  over  English  vessels  in  the  war  of  IS  12,  it  was 
asserted  in  England  that  the  cause  of  American  success  was  the  locust 
timber  in  their  ships.  The  claim  may  have  been  partly  true,  but  other 
factors  contributed  to  the  phenomenal  series  of  successes. 

The  locust  craze  died  a  natural  death.  Too  much  was  claimed  for 
the  wood.  Possibilities  in  the  way  of  growth  were  over  estimated.  It 
was  assumed  that  the  tree,  if  planted,  would  grow  everywhere  as  vigor- 
ously as  on  its  native  mountains  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  where  trees  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  high 
were  found.  Experience  proved  later  that  nature  had  planted  the  locust 
in  the  best  place  for  it,  and  when  transplanted  elsewhere  it  was  apt  to 
fall  short  of  expectations.  Outside  of  its  natural  range  it  grows  vigor- 
ously for  a  time,  and  occasionally  reaches  large  size;  but  in  recent  years 
the  locust  borer  has  defeated  the  efforts  of  man  to  extend  the  range  of 
this  species  and  make  it  profitable  in  regions  distant  from  its  native 
home.  The  tree  is  often  devoured  piecemeal,  branches  and  twigs  break- 
ing and  falling,  and  trunks  gradually  disappearing  beneath  the  attacks 
of  the  hungry  borers.  No  effective  method  of  combating  the  pest  is 
known.  The  planting  of  locust  trees,  once  so  common,  has  now  nearly 
ceased. 

Within  its  native  range,  and  beyond  that  range  when  it  has  a 
chance,  locust  is  a  valuable  and  beautiful  tree.  It  is  valuable  at  all 
times  on  account  of  the  superior  wood  which  it  furnishes,  and  beautiful 
when  in  bloom  and  in  leaf.  A  locust  in  full  flower  is  not  surpassed  in 
ornamental  qualities  by  any  tree  of  this  country.  It  is  a  mass  of  white, 
exceedingly  rich  in  perfume.  It  blooms  in  May  or  June.  During  the 
summer  its  foliage  shows  tropical  luxuriance  with  exquisite  grace.  Its 
compound  leaves  are  from  eight  to  fourteen  inches  long,  with  seven  to 
nine  leaflets.  They  come  late  in  spring  and  go  early  in  autunm.  The 
tree's  thorns,  resembling  cat  claws,  are  affixed  to  the  bark  only,  and 
usually  fall  with  the  leaves.  The  fruit  is  a  pod  three  or  four  inches  long, 
and  contains  four  or  eight  wingless  seeds.  They  depend  on  animals  to 
carry  them  to  planting  places.  The  pods  dry  on  the  branches,  and 
rattle  in  the  wind  most  of  the  autumn.  The  tree  spreads  by  under- 
ground roots  which  send  up  sprouts.  A  locust  in  winter  is  not  a  thing  of 
beauty.  It  appears  to  be  dead ;  not  a  bud  visible.  Its  black,  angular 
branches  lack  every  line  of  grace. 

Locust  wood  is  remarkable  for  strength,  hardness,  and  durability. 
It  is  about  one  pound  per  cubic  foot  lighter  than  white  oak,  but  is  thirty- 
four  per  cent  stiffer  and  forty-five  per  cent  stronger.  Its  strength 
exceeds  that  of  shagbark  hickory,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  stronger 


American  Forest  Trees  537 

wood  exists  in  the  United  States.  Its  hardness  is  equally  remarkable, 
and  is  said  to  be  due  to  crystals  formed  in  the  wood  cells,  and  known  as 
"rhaphides."  Its  durability  is  probably  equal  to  that  of  Osage  orange, 
mesquite,  and  catalpa,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  fix  a  standard  of  durability 
by  which  to  compare  different  woods.  Locust  is  the  best  fence  post 
wood  in  this  country,  because  it  is  usually  much  straighter  than  other 
very  diu-able  woods.  The  posts  are  expected  to  last  at  least  thirty  years, 
and  have  been  known  to  stand  twice  that  long. 

For  more  than  150  years  locust  was  almost  indispensable  in  ship- 
building, furnishing  the  tree  nails  or  large  pins  which  held  the  timbers 
together.  It  supplied  material  for  other  parts  of  ships  also,  but 
in  smaller  quantities.  The  substitution  of  steel  ships  for  wooden  lessen- 
ed demand  for  locust  pins,  and  in  many  instances  large  iron  nails  are 
used  to  fasten  timbers  together.  In  spite  of  this,  the  demand  for 
locust  tree  nails  is  nearly  always  ahead  of  supply. 

The  wood's  figure  is  fairly  strong,  due  to  the  contrast  between 
the  springwood  and  that  grown  later,  but  not  to  the  medullary  rays, 
which  are  small  and  inconspicuous.  The  wood  is  not  in  much  demand 
for  ornamental  purposes.  Small  amounts  are  made  into  policemen's 
clubs,  rake  teeth,  hubs  for  buggy  wheels,  ladder  rungs,  and  tool  handles. 

The  tree  grows  rapidly  where  conditions  are  favorable,  and  very 
slowly  when  they  are  not.  Usually  trees  of  fence  post  size  are  twenty 
years  old  at  least,  but  trunks  thirty  five  years  old  have  been  known  to 
produce  a  post  for  each  two  years  of  age,  though  that  was  exceptional. 
Railroads,  especially  in  Penn.sylvania,  planted  locust  largely  a  few  years 
ago  for  ties.  It  has  been  reported  that  in  some  instances  expectations 
of  growth  have  not  been  fully  realized. 

Clammy  Locu.st  (Robinia  viscosa)  was  originally  confined  to  the  mountains 
of  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  where  its  attractive  flowers  brought  it  to  the 
noticeof  nurserymen  who  have  enlarged  its  natural  range  a  hundred  if  not  a  thousand 
fold.  It  is  now  grown  in  parks  and  gardens  not  only  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river  and  as  for  north  as  Massachusetts,  but  in  most  foreign  countries 
that  have  temperate  chmates.  It  is  usually  a  shrub,  but  on  some  of  the  North 
Carolina  mountains  it  attains  a  height  of  forty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  twelve  inches. 
The  wood  is  seldom  or  never  used  for  any  commercial  purpose.  The  leaves  are  from 
seven  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  contain  thirteen  to  twenty-one  leaflets.  The  flowers 
appear  in  June,  possess  little  odor,  and  are  admired  solely  for  their  beauty.  They 
are  mingled  red  and  rose  color.  The  pods  are  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  contain  small,  mottled  seeds.  The  wood  is  hard  and  heavy,  the  heart  brown 
and  the  sap  yellow.     In  its  wild  haunts  it  is  usually  a  shrub  five  or  six  feet  high. 

New  Mexican  Locust  {Robinia  neo-mexicana)  is  a  small  southwestern  tree, 
seldom  exceeding  a  height  of  twenty-five  feet  or  a  diameter  of  eight  inches.  It  ranges 
from  Colorado  to  Arizona,  and  takes  its  name  from  its  presence  in  New  Mexico.  It 
reaches  its  largest  size  near  Trinidad,  Colorado.  It  is  found  at  elevations  of  7,000 
feet.     Leaves  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  the  leaflets  number  from  fifteen 


538  American  Forest  Trees 

to  twenty-one.  The  flowers  appear  in  May  and  are  less  showy  than  those  of  the 
eastern  locust.  The  wood  is  heavy,  exceedingly  hard,  the  heartwood  yellow,  streaked 
with  brown,  the  thin  sapwood  light  yellow.  This  locust  is  occasionally  used  locally 
for  small  posts  or  stakes,  but  is  generally  too  small.  It  is  sometimes  met  with  in 
cultivation  in  Europe  and  the  eastern  states. 

Tex.\n  Ebony  {Zygia  flexkaidis)  ranges  from  the  Texas  coast  through  Mexico 
to  Lower  California.  It  reaches  a  height  of  thirty  feet  or  more,  and  a  diameter  of 
two  or  less.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree  along  the  lower  Rio  Grande  where  it  reaches  its 
largest  size.  The  light  yellow  or  cream-colored,  very  fragrant  flowers  bloom  from 
June  till  August;  the  fruit  ripens  in  Autumn  but  adheres  several  months  to  the 
branches.  Mexicans  roast  the  seeds  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The  color  of  the 
heartwood  gives  this  tree  its  name,  but  it  is  not  a  true  ebony.  The  wood  of  the  roots 
is  blacker  than  that  of  the  trunk,  and  small  articles  inadc  of  roots  resemble  black 
ebony  of  Ceylon.  The  trunk  wood  is  liable  to  be  streaked  with  black,  brown,  and 
medium  yellow.  The  rings  of  annual  growth  are  frequently  of  different  colors. 
Considerable  demand  is  made  upon  this  wood  in  Texas  for  crossties.  It  is  very 
durable,  but  is  so  hard  that  holes  must  be  bored  for  the  spikes.  It  is  sold  in  large 
amounts  as  cordwood,  and  it  bums  well.  Other  articles  made  of  this  so-called  ebony 
are  foundation  blocks  for  buildings  and  rollers  for  moving  houses.  It  is  used  also  for 
small  turnery. 

HuAjiLLO  (Zygia  brevi/olia)  has  no  English  name,  but  Americans  in  the  Rio 
Grande  valley  where  this  tree  grows  call  it  by  its  Mexican  name.  It  is  a  larger  tree 
in  Mexico  than  on  this  side  of  the  river.  It  is  not  often  more  than  thirty  feet  high 
and  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  generally  a  shrub.  Its  beautiful  foliage  looks  like 
masses  of  ferns,  and  the  flowers  range  from  white  to  violet-yellow.  The  wood  is 
dark,  hard,  heavy,  and  is  seldom  used  for  anything  but  fuel. 

Florida  Cat's  Claw  {Zygia  unguis-caii) ,  with  a  Latin  name  that  would  make 
Julius  Caesar  stare  and  gasp,  reaches  its  largest  size  in  the  United  States  on  Elliott's 
Key,  Florida.  Its  name  refers  to  its  curved  thorns.  Trunks  twenty-five  feet  high 
and  eight  inches  in  diameter  are  the  largest  in  this  country.  It  bears  pods,  but  the 
leaves  are  not  compound,  thus  differing  from  most  trees  of  the  pea  family.  The 
wood  is  not  put  to  any  use,  though  it  is  very  hard  and  heavy,  rich  red,  varying  to 
purple,  with  clear  yellow  sapwood.  It  is  said  to  check  badly  in  drying.  The  bark  is 
used  for  medicine  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 


HONEY  LOCUST 


HONEY  LOCUST 

[Gleditsia  Triacanthos) 

THIS  tree  has  never  suffered  for  want  of  names,  but  most  of  them 
refer  either  to  the  sweetness  of  the  pod  or  to  the  fierceness  of  the 
thorns.  The  beHef  has  long  prevailed  that  it  was  the  ^ods  of  this  tree 
on  which  John  the  Baptist  fed  while  a  recluse  in  the  Syrian  desert.  The 
tradition  should  not  be  taken  seriously.  It  was  certainly  not  this  tree, 
if  any,  which  furnished  food  to  the  prophet  in  the  wilderness,  for  it  does 
not  grow  in  Syria.  Some  related  species  may  grow  there,  for  species  of 
Gleditsia  occur  in  western  Asia  as  well  as  in  China,  Japan,  and  west 
Africa.  The  generic  name  is  in  hon<5r  of  Johann  Gottlieb  Gleditsch,  a 
German  botanist  who  died  in  1786. 

The  name  honey  locust  i-efers  to  the  pod,  not  the  flowers.  The 
latter  are  greenish,  inconspicuous,  and  though  eagerly  sought  by  bees, 
they  offer  no  partictdar  attractions  to  people.  Few  persons  ever  notice 
them. 

In  some  of  the  southwestern  states  the  tree  is  called  black  locust, 
though  for  what  reason  it  is  not  apparent.  Sweet  locust,  by  which  name 
it  is  known  in  several  states,  has  reference  to  the  pods,  as  do  the  names 
honey,  and  honey-shucks  locust,  applied  in  different  localities.  Many 
persons  in  naming  the  tree  have  thorns  in  mind.  It  is  known  as  three- 
thomed  acacia,  thorn  locust,  thorn  tree,  thorny  locust,  and  thorny 
acacia.  The  botanist  who  named  it  considered  thorns  a  characteristic, 
for  Triacanthos  means  "three-thomed." 

No  one  who  has  ever  had  dealings  with  the  thorns,  will  fail  to  duly 
consider  them.  They  are  about  the  most  ferocious  product  of  American 
forests.  The  tree's  trunk  and  largest  branches  bristle  with  them, 
standing  out  like  porcupine  quills,  and  sharper  than  any  needle  devised 
by  human  ingenuity.  Microscopists  use  them  for  picking  up  and 
handling  minute  objects,  their  points  being  smooth  and  delicate  though 
their  shafts  may  be  strong  and  rough.  Thorns  are  arrested  branches, 
coming  from  deep  down  in  the  wood.  No  more  can  one  of  them  be  pulled 
out  than  a  limb  can  be  extracted  by  the  roots.  They  come  from  the 
center  of  the  tree  or  limb.  Some  put  out  leaves  and  become  true 
branches,  but  others  sharpen  their  points,  assume  an  attitude  of  hostility, 
and  remain  thorns  to  the  end  of  their  lives.  Some  of  them  are  a  foot 
long,  and  are  so  strong  that  birds  flying  against  them  are  impaled  and 
meet  cruel  death.  A  well-armed  trunk  is  proof  against  the  agility  and 
skill  of  the  squirrel.  He  cannot  negotiate  the  thorns,  and  probably 
he  tries  only  once.     The  hot  pursuit  of  a  dog  will  not  compel  him  to 


542  American'  Forest  Trees 

attempt  it.  All  trees,  however,  are  not  formidably  thorned ;  some  have 
few,  and  certain  varieties  have  none. 

The  honey  locust  is  sometimes  called  the  Confederate  pin  tree  in 
the  South.  This  is  a  reference  to  the  Civil  war,  and  the  use  occasionally 
made  of  the  thorns  by  soldiers  in  mending  the  rents  in  their  torn  uni- 
forms. The  thorns  were  once  put  to  a  somewhat  similar  use  among  the 
Alleghany  mountains  where  local  factories  for  carding  and  spinning 
country  wool  employed  them  to  pin  up  the  mouths  of  wool  sacks. 

The  natural  range  of  honey  locust  has  been  greatly  extended  by 
man.  It  was  not  originally  found  east  of  the  Alleghany  mountains. 
It  grew  from  western  Pennsylvania  to  northern  Alabama  and  Mississippi, 
and  westward  to  Nebraska  and  Texas.  It  is  now  naturalized  east  of  the 
AUeghanies,  and  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Planting  for  orna- 
mental purposes  and  for  hedges  has  been  the  cause  of  its  extension  into 
new  territory.  In  spite  of  thorns,  it  is  ornamental.  Its  foliage  is  thin, 
and  its  flowers  inconspicuous,  but  the  tree  possesses  a  grace  which  wins 
it  favor.  It  grows  very  rapidly,  and  in  a  short  time  a  seedling  becomes  a 
respectable  tree,  and  continues  its  rapid  growth  a  long  time.  In 
southern  Indiana  and  Illinois,  which  is  the  best  part  of  its  range,  trees 
have  attained  a  height  of  140  feet  and  a  diameter  of  six.  The  average 
size  of  forest-grown  specimens  is  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  and  two  or 
more  in  diameter. 

The  leaves  are  seven  or  eight  inches  long,  doubly  compound;  the 
fruit  a  pod  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  which  assumes  a  twist  when  ripe, 
or  sometimes  warps  several  ways.  The  green  pod  contains  a  sweet 
substance  often  eaten  by  children,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  of  little  value 
for  human  food.  Cattle  devour  the  pods  when  in  the  sugary  condition ; 
but  they  cannot  often  obtain  them,  because  thorns  intervene,  when  the 
pods  would  otherwise  be  in  reach.  In  niral  districts,  a  domestic  beer  is 
brewed  from  the  young  fruit.  The  juice  extracted  from  it  is  per- 
mitted to  ferment,  but  the  beverage  is  probably  never  sold  in  the  market. 

The  pods  are  in  no  hurry  to  let  go  and  fall,  even  after  they  are  fully 
ripe.  They  become  dry,  distort  themselves  with  a  number  of  corkscrew 
twists,  and  hang  until  late  fall  or  early  winter,  rattling  in  the  wind  and 
occasionally  shaking  out  a  seed  or  two. 

Honey  locust  has  never  been  considered  important  from  the 
lumberman's  standpoint.  Sawlogs  go  to  mills  here  and  there,  but  never 
many  in  one  place.  The  wood  is  not  listed  under  its  own  name,  but  is 
put  in  with  something  else.  Occasionally,  it  is  said,  it  passes  as  syca- 
more in  the  furnitiu-e  factory,  though  the  difference  ought  not  be 
difficult  to  detect.  It  doubtless  depends  to  a  considerable  degree  on  the 
particular  wood,  for  all  honey  locust  does  not  look  alike  when  converted 


American  Forest  Trees  543 

into  lumber.  Some  of  that  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  might  pass  as 
sycamore  if  inspection  is  not  too  conscientiously  carried  out.  The 
medullary  rays,  being  darker  than  the  body  of  the  wood,  suggest  syca- 
more in  quarter-sawed  stock.  Some  of  it  goes  into  furniture,  finish, 
balusters,  newel  posts,  panels,  and  molding,  particularly  in  eastern 
Texas.  In  Louisiana,  where  wood  of  similar  texture  and  appearance 
might  be  expected,  it  is  not  looked  on  with  favor,  but  is  employed  only 
in  the  cheapest,  roughest  work. 

The  principal  use  of  the  wood  is  for  posts  and  raikoad  ties.  It  lasts 
well,  and  is  strong.  Claims  have  been  made  that  it  is  generally  equal  and 
in  some  ways  superior  to  locust.  It  is  difficult  to  see  on  what  these  claims 
are  based.  It  is  lighter,  less  elastic,  and  much  weaker.  Figures  showing 
the  comparative  durability  of  the  two  woods  are  not  available,  but  in 
like  situations,  locust  would  doubtless  last  much  longer.  As  timber 
trees,  the  former  may  have  the  advantage  over  locust  in  being  free  from 
attacks  of  borers,  attaining  greater  size,  and  thriving  in  a  much  larger 
area.  It  has  been  planted  for  ornament  in  other  lands  than  this,  and  is 
now  prospering  in  all  the  important  countries  of  the  temperate  zone. 
One  variety  is  thomless,  and  is  known  to  botanists  as  Gleditsia  triacan- 
ihos  Icevis;  another  has  short  thorns. 

Water  Locu.st  (Gleditsia  aquaiica)  looks  so  much  like  honey  locust  that  the 
two  are  often  supposed  to  be  the  same  species  in  Louisiana;  yet  there  are  a  number 
of  differences.  Water  locust  has  fewer  thorns  and  they  are  smaller,  and  often  flat 
hke  a  knife  blade.  The  pods  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  honey  locust,  being 
short  and  wide.  The  two  species  share  the  same  range  to  some  extent,  but  that  of 
water  locust  is  smaller,  extending  from  South  Carolina  to  Texas,  Illinois,  and  Missouri ; 
but  the  best  of  the  species  is  west  of  the  lower  Mississippi  where  trees  may  reach  a 
height  of  si.xty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  the 
heartwood  rich  bright  brown,  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  yellow.  The  wood  is 
much  like  that  of  honey  locust,  and  when  used  at  all  is  employed  in  the  same  way. 

Texas  Locu.st  {Gleditsia  texana)  is  of  no  importance  as  a  timber  tree,  and 
deserves  mention  only  because  its  extremely  restricted  range  gives  it  an  interest. 
It  exists,  as  far  as  known,  in  a  single  grove  on  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Brazos  river, 
near  Brazoria,  Texas,  where  some  of  the  trees  exceed  100  feet  in  height,  and  a  diam- 
eter of  two.  The  bark  is  smooth  and  thin,  the  leaves  resemble  those  of  honey  locust, 
and  the  pods  are  about  one-third  as  long. 

HuiSACHE  {Acacia  farnesiana)  is  native  along  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas,  but  it 
is  running  wild  in  Florida  from  planted  trees.  It  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed 
species  in  the  world,  both  by  natural  dispersal  and  by  planting;  and  it  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  members  of  the  large  group  of  acacias  which  includes  more  than  400 
species.  It  bears  delicate  double-compound  leaves,  small  and  graceful.  A  tree  in 
full  leaf  in  its  native  wilds  along  the  Rio  Grande  looks  hke  a  trembling  fluffy  mass  of 
green  silk.  Nature  formed  the  tree  for  ornament,  not  for  timber.  It  attains  a  height 
of  from  twenty  to  forty  feet,  diameter  eighteen  inches  or  less.  Trunk  usually 
divides  into  several  branches  near  the  ground.  Perhaps  the  only  place  in  this 
country  where  the  wood  is  used  is  in  southern  Texas  where  is  it  called  "cassie,"  a 


544 


American  Forest  Trees 


shortening  of  acacia.  The  wood  so  much  resembles  mesquite  that  locally  they  are 
considered  the  same.  Huisache  warps  and  checks  in  seasoning,  but  it  is  employed  in 
a  small  way  for  furniture,  usually  as  small  table  legs,  spindles,  knobs,  and  ornaments. 
It  takes  high  polish,  and  resembles  the  best  grades  of  black  walnut,  but  is  much 
heavier,  harder,  and  stronger.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  drive  a  nail  into  it  without 
first  boring  a  hole.  When  used  as  crossties,  holes  must  be  bored  for  the  spikes. 
The  heartwood  resists  decay  a  long  time,  but  the  thin  sapwood  is  hable  to  be  riddled 
by  small  boring  insects,  which  seldom  or  never  enter  the  heartwood. 

Texas  Cat's  Claw  {Acacia  wrighiii)  is  a  hardluck  tree  of  western  Texas  where 
it  is  usually  found  on  dry,  gravelly  hills  and  in  stony  ravines.  Its  twice-compound 
leaves  are  among  the  smallest  of  the  acacias,  seldom  exceeding  two  inches  in  length. 
The  fragrant,  light  yellow  flowers  appear  from  March  to  May,  and  the  short  pods  ripen 
in  midsummer,  but  like  so  many  trees  of  the  pea  family,  they  are  in  no  hurry  to  fall. 
The  largest  trees  are  thirty  feet  high  and  one  in  diameter,  but  most  people  associate 
cat's  claw  with  low,  tangled  brush,  tough  as  wire,  and  armed  with  curved  thorns  so 
strong  that  their  hold  on  clothing  can  hardly  be  broken.  When  a  cat's  claw  bush 
strikes  out  to  become  a  tree — which  is  infrequent — it  grows  rapidly.  It  has  been 
known  to  attain  a  diameter  of  nine  inches  in  twenty-three  years.  The  heart  is  dark 
in  color  and  exceedingly  hard.  The  color  varies  from  nearly  red  to  nearly  black,  and 
takes  a  polish  aknost  like  ivory.  The  thin  yellow  sapwood  is  preyed  on  by  boring  in- 
sects. Heartwood  is  made  into  canes,  umbrella  sticks,  tool  handles,  rulers,  and  turned 
novelties.  ^ 

Devil's  Claw  {Acacia  greggii)  has  such  paradoxical  names  as  paradise  flower, 
ramshorn,  and  cat's  claw.  It  deserves  them  all  where  it  grows  wild  on  the  semi- 
deserts  of  the  Southwest  from  Texas  to  California.  The  double-compound  leaves 
are  one  or  two  inches  long,  its  bright,  creamy-yellow  and  exquisitely  fragrant  flowers 
are  the  glory  of  desert  places,  while  its  masses  of  thorns  readily  suggest  the  common 
name  by  which  it  is  known.  The  wood  is  scarce,  but  extraordinarily  fine.  It  is 
dark  rich  red,  but  clowded  with  streaks  and  patches  of  other  shades,  becoming  at 
times  gray,  at  others  green.  No  nail  can  be  driven  into  it,  and  an  ordinary  gimlet  will 
hardly  bore  it.  It  is  so  saturated  with  oil  that  it  is  greasy  to  the  touch.  It  is  manu- 
factured into  small  articles,  but  apparently  is  not  used  outside  of  the  locality  where  it 
grows.  The  wood  is  often  contorted,  due  to  pits  and  cavities  which  slowly  close  as 
the  tree  advances  in  age.     They  add  to  rather  than  detract  from  the  wood's  beauty. 


COFFEE    TREE 


COFFEETREE 

(Gymnocladus  Dioicus) 

THIS  tree  is  scarce  though  its  range  covers  several  hundred  thousand 
square  miles,  from  New  York  to  Minnesota,  and  from  Tennessee  to 
Oklahoma.  It  never  occvu-s  in  thick  stands,  and  usually  the  trees  are 
widely  scattered.  Many  districts  of  large  size  within  the  limits  of  its 
range  appear  to  have  none. 

The  names  coffeetree  and  Kentucky  coflfeetree  refer  to  the  custom 
of  the  pioneers,  who  settled  the  region  south  of  the  Ohio  river,  and  who 
used  the  grotesque  fruit  as  a  substitute  for  coffee  at  a  time  when  the 
genuine  article  could  not  be  procured.  The  seed  is  a  very  hard  bean  that 
can  be  procured  in  abundance,  where  trees  abound. 

The  beans  were  softened  by  roasting  or  parching,  and  were  then 
poimded  into  meal  with  hammers,  and  boiled  for  coffee.  The  beverage 
was  black  and  bitter,  and  a  little  of  it  would  go  a  long  way  with  a  modem 
coffee  drinker.  When  the  Kentuckians  were  able  to  procure  coffee  they 
let  the  wild  substitute  alone. 

The  name  was  sometimes  varied  by  calling  it  coffeenut  or  coffeenut 
tree,  and  sometimes  it  was  known  as  coffeebean  and  coffeebean  tree.  It 
is  less  easy  to  explain  why  it  was  called  mahogany  in  New  York,  and 
virgilia  in  Tennessee.  Some  knew  it  as  the  nicker  tree,  but  the  reason 
for  the  name  is  not  known.  Stump  tree  was  another  of  its  names.  This 
was  meant  to  be  descriptive  of  the  tree's  appearance  after  it  had  shed  its 
leaves.  It  has  remarkable  foliage,  double  compound  leaves  two  or  three 
feet  long,  with  four  or  five  dozen  leaflets.  When  leaves  fall  in  autumn  it 
looks  as  if  the  tree  is  shedding  its  twigs;  and  when  all  are  down,  the 
stripped  and  barren  appearance  of  the  branches  suggests  the  name 
stump  tree. 

The  flowers  are  greenish-purple  and  are  inconspicuous.  In  this 
respect  they  differ  from  many  trees  of  the  pea  family  which  are  noted 
for  their  attractive  bloom.  The  fruit  is  among  the  largest  of  the  tree 
pods  of  this  country,  ranging  in  length  from  six  to  ten  inches  and  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  in  width.  When  fully  grown  they  are  heavy 
enough  to  make  their  presence  felt  if  they  drop  on  the  heads  of  persons 
beneath.  They  are  slow  to  fall,  however,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  them 
to  cling  to  the  branches  until  late  winter  or  early  spring. 

The  coffeetree  has  been  known  to  attain  a  diameter  of  five  feet 
and  a  height  of  more  than  a  hundred,  but  the  usual  size  is  about  half  of 
that.  It  prefers  rich  bottom  lands,  and  the  trunks  generally  separate 
into  several  stems  a  few  feet  above  the  ground.     Only  one  species  exists 


548  American  Forest  Trees 

in  this  country,  and  as  far  as  known,  only  one  other  species  elsewhere, 
and  that  grows  in  southern  China  where  it  is  said  the  natives  make  soap 
of  the  pods.  It  is  not  known  that  any  such  utilization  has  been  attempt- 
ed in  this  covmtry. 

The  coffeetree's  range  has  been  considerably  extended  by  planting 
for  ornament.  In  summer  it  is  attractive,  but  from  the  first  autumn 
frost  until  the  leaves  put  out  the  following  spring,  it  is  uninteresting. 
The  spring  leaves  are  late,  and  the  branches  are  bare  more  than  half  the 
year. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  and  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 
The  heart  is  rich  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  thin  and 
lighter  colored.  Annual  rings  are  distinct.  The  springwood  is  porous 
and  wide,  the  summerwood  dense.  The  medullary  rays  are  incon- 
spicuous and  of  no  value  in  giving  figure  to  the  wood.  When  the  annual 
rings  are  cut  diagonally  across  they  give  figure  like  that  of  ash.  The 
wood  of  the  coffeetree  has  never  been  in  much  demand.  Fumitiu-e 
makers  may  use  it  sometimes,  but  specific  instances  of  such  use  do  not 
exist  in  manufacturers'  reports.  There  are  many  places  in  furniture 
and  finish  which  it  might  fill  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

It  is  suitable  for  fence  posts,  and  that  is  where  it  commonly  gives 
service.  It  is  occasionally  employed  as  frame  work  in  house  and  bam 
building,  but  is  not  sought  for  that  purpose,  and  is  used  only  when  it 
happens  to  be  at  hand.  Though  the  tree  has  the  habit  of  branching, 
some  of  the  trunks  grow  tall  and  shapely,  and  are  good  for  two  or  three 
sawlogs  or  railcuts.  An  occasional  tree  serves  as  fuel.  Medicine  is 
sometimes  made  of  a  decoction  of  the  fresh  green  pulp  of  unripe  pods; 
and  the  leaves  are  reported  to  produce  a  fly  poison  if  soaked  in  water. 

Redbud  {Cercis  canadensis)  is  also  known  as  Judas  tree,  red  Judas 
tree,  Canadian  Judas  tree,  and  salad  tree.  The  last  name  refers  to  a 
custom  in  some  parts  of  its  range  of  making  salad  of  the  flowers.  It  is 
the  flower  rather  than  the  bud  that  is  red  and  gives  the  tree  its  name, 
the  bloom  being  conspicuous  in  early  spring.  The  tree  ranges  from 
New  Jersey  to  Missouri,  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Florida,  but  reaches  its 
fullest  development  in  southern  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  eastern  Texas 
where  trunks  fifty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter  are  found.  It  is 
shrubby  in  many  parts  of  its  range.  Leaves  are  not  compoimd.  The 
fruit  is  a  pink  or  rose-colored  pod  two  or  three  inches  in  length,  and  by 
some  is  considered  nearly  as  ornamental  though  not  as  showy  as  the 
flowers.  No  one  ever  thinks  of  redbud  as  a  timber  tree  or  considers  its 
wood,  yet  it  might  be  used  for  a  number  of  purposes.  It  is  heavy  and 
hard,  but  weak ;  and  the  heartwood  is  rich  dark  brown  tinged  with  red. 
The  tree  is  planted  for  ornament  in  this  country  and  Europe. 


American  Forest  Trees  549 

Texas  Redbud  (Cercis  reniformis)  differs  somewhat  from  the 
common  redbud,  but  it  takes  a  botanist  to  point  out  the  differences. 
The  largest  trees  are  forty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter;  the  range 
extends  from  eastern  Texas  into  Mexico;  the  wood  closely  resembles  that 
of  the  other  species,  and  is  not  known  to  be  used  for  any  purpose. 

California  Redbud  {Cercis  occidcntalis)  is  often  classed  as  a  shrub, 
but  Sudworth  gives  it  a  place  among  the  forest  trees  of  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  pea-shaped  flowers  are  a  clear  magenta  color.  The  pods  turn  purple 
when  ripening  but  afterwards  change  to  russet-brown.  The  wood  is 
dark  yellowish-bro%vn,  but  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  trunks,  it  can 
never  be  important.  The  tree  is  found  along  the  California  mountains, 
six  hundred  miles  north  and  south ;  is  an  abundant  seeder,  and  is  valuable 
as  a  protection  to  slopes  and  ravines,  and  as  an  ornament. 

Horsebean  (Parkinsonia  aculeata)  is  generally  called  retama  in 
the  valley  of  the  lower  Rio  Grande  in  Texas  where  the  species  attains  its 
largest  size.  Trees  are  occasionally  thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  more 
in  diameter.  Trunks  usually  separate  in  several  stems  near  the  ground. 
The  range  extends  from  southern  Texas  to  California,  and  the  species 
is  naturalized  in  south  Florida,  the  West  Indies,  and  many  tropical 
countries.  Leaves  vary  in  form,  and  are  occasionally  eighteen  inches 
long.  Fruit  consists  of  pods,  each  containing  from  two  to  eight  beans. 
The  yellow  flowers  are  small  and  fragrant;  the  bark  on  young  twigs  is 
green,  but  on  older  trunks  is  brown.  The  brown,  however,  is  easily 
rubbed  off,  exposing  the  green  beneath,  as  may  be  seen  in  school  grounds 
in  some  of  the  southern  towns  in  Texas  where  this  tree  has  been  planted 
for  ornament,  and  abrasions,  due  to  children  climbing  about  the  spread- 
ing stems,  keep  the  bark  green.  The  upper  branches  are  armed  with 
thorns  which  discourage  the  climbing  propensities  of  children.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  hard,  tinged  with  yellow,  and  is  made  into  small  novelties, 
but  is  not  of  much  importance. 

Small-leaf  Horsebean  {Parkinsonia  microphylla)  is  well  named, 
for  the  compound  leaves,  with  four  or  six  pairs  of  leaflets,  are  about  an 
inch  long,  covered  with  hairs,  and  fall  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks.  Conse- 
quently, the  tree  is  bare  most  of  the  year,  except  for  the  pale  yellow 
flowers  which  appear  in  spring  before  the  leaves,  and  the  clusters  of 
striped  pods,  each  containing  from  one  to  three  beans.  The  pods  are 
nearly  always  present,  for  they  have  the  pea  family  habit  of  adhering  to 
the  branches  a  long  time.  Trees  reach  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet,  and  a  diameter  of  ten  inches  or  less.  The  wood  is  very  hard  and 
dense,  in  color  deep  yellowish-brown,  often  mottled  and  streaked  with 
dull  red;  the  sapwood  thick  and  yellow.  The  wood  is  suitable  for  small 
articles,  but  its  scarcity  renders  it  of  little  importance.    It  is  found  in  the 


550  American  Forest  Trees 

deserts  of  southern  Arizona  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  California,  and  is 
usually  a  small  shrub. 

Jamaica  Dogwood  {Ichthyomcthia  piscipula)  is  the  lone  represen- 
tative of  the  genus,  and  is  found  in  this  country  only  in  southern  Florida. 
It  is  not  in  the  same  family  wit'-,  -he  dogwoods,  and  its  name  is  mislead- 
ing. The  Carib  Indians  formerly  used  the  leaves  to  stupify  fish  and 
render  them  easier  to  catch;  hence  the  botanical  name.  The  leaves  are 
compound,  but  bear  little  resemblance  to  the  foliage  of  most  members  of 
the  pea  family  to  which  this  tree  belongs.  The  flowers  are  the  tree's 
chief  source  of  beauty,  and  are  delicately  clustered,  hanging  in  bunches  a 
foot  long.  The  fruit  is  a  pod  three  or  four  inches  long,  with  four  wings 
running  the  full  length.  The  wings  are  useless  for  flying.  Trees  are 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high  and  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter;  are  common  in 
southern  Florida  and  on  the  islands.  The  wood  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  the  region  where  it  grows  but  figures  little  in  general  markets. 
It  weighs  54.43  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  moderately  strong  and  stiff. 
In  color  it  is  a  clear  yellow-brown,  with  thick,  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
It  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  in  Florida  it  is  used 
for  posts,  and  occasionally  for  railway  ties.  It  has  been  commonly 
reported  as  a  wood  for  boatbuilding  in  Florida,  but  its  importance  for 
that  piu-pose  has  probably  been  overstated,  since  an  investigation  of  the 
boatbuilding  industry  in  Florida  failed  to  find  one  foot  of  this  wood  in 
use,  although  some  may  be  employed  but  not  listed  in  reports. 


YELLOW-WOOD 


YELLOW-WOOD 

{Cladraslis  Lutea) 

THIS  wood's  color  is  evidently  responsible  for  its  names  yellow  ash, 
yellow  locust,  and  yellow-wood  in  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and 
Kentucky,  but  no  reason  is  offered  for  the  name  gopherwood  by  which  it 
is  known  in  some  parts  of  Tennessee.  The  botanical  name  is  based  on 
the  brittleness  of  the  twigs.  It  is  the  only  species  of  the  genus,  and  it  is 
not  known  to  grow  anywhere,  except  by  planting,  outside  of  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  North  Carolina. 

It  occurs  in  an  area  not  much  exceeding  60,000  square  miles,  and  it 
is  not  abundant  in  that  area.  It  prefers  limestone  ridges  and  slopes,  and 
does  best  where  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  often  overhangs  the  banks  of 
mountain  streams,  and  is  most  abundant  and  of  largest  size  in  the 
vicinity  of  Nashville,  Tennessee,  where  a  few  trees  have  reached  a  diam- 
eter of  three  or  four  feet  and  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty.  A  diameter  of 
eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches  is  a  good  average. 

The  tree's  habit  of  dividing  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  ground  into 
two  or  more  stems  is  responsible  for  the  scarcity  of  trunks  suitable  for 
saw  timber,  even  in  localities  where  trees  of  large  size  are  found.  How- 
ever, an  occasional  trunk  develops  a  shapely  form.  It  goes  to  sawmills 
so  seldom  that  it  is  never  mentioned  in  statistics  of  lumber  cut  or  wood- 
utilization. 

Most  people  who  are  acquainted  with  this  tree,  know  it  as  planted 
stock  in  parks  and  yards  where  it  is  a  favorite  on  account  of  its  flowers. 
The  bloom  may  properly  be  described  as  rare  from  two  viewpoints. 
The  beauty  of  its  large  clusters  of  white  flowers  differs  from  those  of  all 
associated  trees;  and  it  seldom  blooms.  One  year  of  plenty  is  generally 
followed  by  several  lean  years.  Those  who  plant  the  tree  understand 
this,  and  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  long  wait,  when  the  flowering  year 
arrives.  The  planted  tree  is  often  known  as  virgilia,  that  being  the  name 
under  which  nurseries  sell  it.  Flowers  appear  about  the  middle  of  June, 
in  clusters  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  It  is  claimed,  but  with  what  correct- 
ness cannot  at  present  be  stated,  that  the  odor  of  flowers  of  different 
trees  varies  greatly,  being  faint  with  some,  and  strong  and  luxurious  with 
others. 

The  leaves  are  compound,  but  have  no  resemblance  to  those  of 
locust  and  the  acacias.  They  are  eight  or  twelve  inches  long,  mth  five 
or  seven  leaflets.  In  autumn  before  falling  they  change  to  a  clear  yellow, 
but  adhere  to  the  branches  until  rather  late  in  the  season.  The  fruit, 
which  consists  of  small  pods  hanging  in  clusters,  is  ripe  in  September. 


554  American  Forest  Trees 

Yellow-wood  is  a  little  below  white  oak  in  strength  and  seven 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  under  it  in  weight;  is  hard,  compact,  and  suscep- 
tible of  a  beautiful  polish.  Rings  of  yearly  growth  are  clearly  marked 
by  rows  of  open  ducts,  and  contain  many  evenly-distributed  smaller 
ducts.  The  wood  is  bright,  clear  yellow,  changing  to  brown  on  ex- 
posure; sapwood  nearly  white.  Trunks  of  largest  size  are  generally 
hollow  or  otherwise  defective. 

The  uses  of  yellow-wood  have  been  few.  In  the  days  when 
families  in  remote  regions  were  under  the  necessity  of  manufacturing, 
growing,  or  otherwise  producing  nearly  every  commodity  that  entered 
into  daily  life,  the  settlers  among  the  mountains  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  discovered  that  the  wood  of  this  tree,  particularly  the  roots, 
yielded  a  clear,  yellow  dye.  The  process  of  manufacture  was  simple. 
The  wood  was  reduced  to  chips  with  an  ordinary  ax,  and  the  chips  were 
boiled  until  the  yellow  coloring  matter  was  extracted.  The  resulting 
liquor  was  the  dye,  and  it  gave  the  yellow  stripe  to  many  a  piece  of  home- 
made cloth  in  the  cabins  of  mountaineers. 

The  women  usually  attended  to  the  dye  making  and  the  manu- 
facture of  yarn  and  cloth;  but  the  men  found  a  way  to  utilize  yellow- 
wood  in  producing  an  article  once  so  common  in  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky that  no  cabin  was  without  it — the  trusty  rifle.  The  gimsmith, 
assisted  by  the  blacksmith,  made  the  barrel  and  the  other  metal  parts, 
but  the  hunter  generally  was  able  to  whittle  out  the  wooden  stock. 
Yellow- wood's  lightness, strength,  and  color  suited  the  gun  stock  maker's 
pm-pose,  and  he  slowly  hewed  and  whittled  the  article,  fitted  it  to  the 
barrel,  adjusted  it  to  his  shoulder,  and  completed  a  weapon  which  never 
failed  the  owner  in  time  of  need. 

Frijolito  (Sophora  secundiflora)  is  found  in  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
and  southward  in  Mexico.  The  name  is  Spanish  and  means  "little 
bean."  A  common  name  for  it  in  English  is  coral  bean.  Sophora  is 
said  to  be  an  Arabic  word  of  uncertain  meaning,  except  that  it  refers  to 
some  kind  of  a  tree  that  bears  pods.  It  is  a  species,  therefore,  which 
draws  its  names  from  four  languages,  while  the  name  applied  to  it  by 
Comanche  Indians  is  translated  "sleep-bush."  The  bright  scarlet 
seeds,  as  large  as  beans,  but  in  shape  like  door-knobs,  grow  from  one  to 
eight  in  a  pod,  and  contain  a  narcotic  poison,  "sophorin."  It  is  probable 
that  Indians  discovered  that  the  beans,  if  eaten,  produced  sleep,  hence 
the  name.  The  tree  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet  high,  and 
from  six  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  compound,  and 
consist  of  seven  or  nine  leaflets.  The  small,  violet-blue  flowers  appear 
in  early  spring.  They  are  not  conspicuous,  but  their  presence  cannot 
escape  the  notice  of  a  traveler  in  the  dry,  semi-barren  canyons  and  on  the 


American  Forest  Trees  555 

bluffs  where  the  tree  holds  its  ground.  Their  odor  calls  attention  to 
their  presence.  The  perfume  is  powerful  but  pleasant,  unless  the 
contact  is  too  close.  The  pods  are  from  one  to  seven  inches  long,  and 
hang  on  the  boughs  until  late  winter.  It  is  not  believed  that  birds  or 
mammels  distribute  the  seeds,  as  their  poison  renders  them  unfit  for 
food.  Running  water  appears  to  be  the  principal  agent  of  distribution. 
The  tree  reaches  its  largest  size  in  the  vicinity  of  Metagorda  bay,  Texas. 
Among  the  dry  western  canyons  it  is  usually  a  shrub.  The  small  size 
of  this  tree  stands  in  the  way  of  extensive  use  of  the  wood.  It  burns 
well  and  its  principal  importance  is  as  fuel.  The  weight  is  61 .34  pounds 
per  cubic  foot;  it  is  hard,  compact,  susceptible  of  a  beautiful  polish; 
medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  thin;  color  is  orange,  streaked  with 
red,  the  sapwood  brown  or  yellow.  The  wood  is  worked  into  a  few  small 
articles. 

SoPHORA  [Sophora  affinis)  ranges  through  portions  of  Arkansas 
and  Texas.  It  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  a  locust,  and  is  called  pink 
locust  or  beaded  locust,  the  first  name  based  on  the  color  of  the  wood, 
the  last  on  the  appearance  of  the  pod  which  looks  like  a  short  string  of 
beads,  sometimes  three  inches  in  length,  but  usually  shorter.  In  early 
times  the  pioneers  manufactured  ink  from  the  pods.  It  was  a  fairly 
serviceable  article,  but  was  never  sold,  each  family  making  its  own. 
This  tree's  flowers  appear  in  early  spring  with  the  leaves.  Trunks  reach 
a  height  of  twenty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eight  or  ten  inches;  but  the 
habit  of  separating  into  several  stems  a  few  feet  above  the  ground  lessens 
the  use  of  the  wood,  even  as  posts,  for  the  stems  are  usually  very  crooked. 
The  tree's  preferred  habitat  is  on  limestone  bluffs,  or  along  the  borders 
of  streams,  or  in  depressions  in  the  prairie  where  small  groves  often 
occur.  The  wood  weighs  fifty-three  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  very 
hard  and  strong.  The  annual  rings  are  clearly  marked  with  bands  of 
large,  open  pores;  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  inconspicuous;  color  of 
the  heartwood  light  red,  the  sapwood  yellow.  The  wood  is  not  sawed 
into  lumber,  but  is  whittled  into  canes  and  tool  handles. 

Greenbark  Acacia  (Ccrcidiuni  floridum)  is  properly  named.  Its 
green  bark  makes  up  for  its  scarcity  of  leaves,  and  answers  the  purpose 
of  foliage.  The  manufacture  of  the  tree's  food  goes  on  in  the  bark, 
because  the  leaves  are  too  small  to  do  the  work.  The  foliage  resembles 
that  of  locust  and  acacia  in  form,  but  the  compound  leaves  are  about  an 
inch  in  length,  and  the  leaflets  are  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long.  Flowers 
are  small,  but  the  tree  puts  on  three  or  four  crops  of  them  in  a  single 
summer.  The  pods  are  two  inches  long.  The  tree  is  found  in  the  United 
States  only  in  the  south  and  west  of  Texas,  where  it  is  occasionally 
called  palo  verde.     It  attains  a  height  of  twenty  feet  and  a  diameter 


556  American  Forest  Trees 

of  ten  inches  when  at  its  best.  The  wood  is  pale  yellow  tinged  with 
green,  and,  because  of  small  size,  is  of  little  importance. 

Palo  Verde  {Ccrcidium  torrcyanum)  sheds  its  leaves  and  its  pods 
so  early  in  the  season  that  its  branches  are  bare  most  of  the  year.  Trees 
are  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high,  and  some  are  considerably  more  than 
a  foot  in  diameter.  Its  range  covers  a  portion  of  southern  California, 
the  lower  part  of  the  Gila  valley  in  Arizona,  and  extends  southward  into 
Mexico.  It  is  a  typical  tree  of  the  desert,  and  its  extreme  poverty  of 
foliage  enables  it  to  live  in  a  dry,  hot  climate.  It  clings  to  the  sides  of 
desert  gulches  and  canyons,  ekes  out  a  dreary  life  in  depressions  among 
desolate  dunes  and  hills  of  sand  and  gravel, and  spends  its  allotted  period 
of  years  in  solitude,  growing  either  singly  or  in  small  groups  where  the 
full  foliage  at  the  best  time  of  year  is  insufficient  to  offer  much  obstruc- 
tion to  the  full  glare  of  the  sun  from  a  cloudless  sky.  The  small  flowers 
have  little  beauty  or  sweetness,  but  what  they  have  is  wasted  on  the 
desert  air.  Wayfarers  in  the  barren  country  use  the  wood  for  camp 
fires. 

Indigo  Thorn  (Dalea  spinosa)  receives  its  name  from  the  color  of  its  flowers 
which  appear  in  June.  The  tree  has  few  leaves  and  they  fall  in  a  short  time.  This 
appears  to  be  a  provision  of  nature  to  enable  the  tree  to  endure  the  heat  and  drjness 
of  its  desert  home.  Its  range  covers  the  lower  Gila  valley  in  Arizona,  and  extends  into 
the  Colorado  desert  in  southern  California.  It  is  not  abundant,  and  if  it  were,  it  is 
of  a  size  so  small  that  it  is  practically  valueless  for  commercial  purposes.  Some  trees 
are  a  foot  in  diameter  and  twenty  feet  high.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and  of  a  rich 
chocolate-brown  color.     It  is  known  also  as  indigo  bush  and  dalea. 

EvsENHARDTi.\  {Eysenhardtia  orthocarpa)  is  so  little  known  that  it  has  no 
English  name.  It  grows  from  western  Texas  to  southern  .Arizona,  but  reaches  tree 
size  only  near  the  summit  of  Santa  Catalina  mountains  in  Arizona  where  it  is  twenty 
feet  or  less  in  height  and  seldom  more  than  eight  inches  in  diameter.  It  inhabits  an 
arid  region,  and  bears  fruit  sparingly,  with  usually  a  single  seed  in  a  pod.  The  wood 
is  heavy  and  hard,  light  reddish-brown  in  color,  with  thin  yellow  sap.  It  is  not  of 
commercial  importance  and  probably  never  will  be. 


MESOUITE 


MESQUITE 

{Prosopis  Juliflora) 

THERE  are  known  to  be  sixteen  species  at  least  of  mesquite  in  the 
world,  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  and  South  America.  The  one 
here  considered  has  a  geographical  range  of  at  least  seven  thousand 
miles  north  and  south,  from  Kansas  to  Patagonia,  and  an  east  and  west 
range  of  four  thousand  miles,  if  the  naturalized  growth  in  Hawaii  may 
be  considered  the  western  outpost  of  the  species.* 

The  generic  name  prosopis  is  a  Greek  word  meaning  "burdock;" 
the  rest  of  the  botanical  name  is  Latin,  meaning  "July  flower."  Mesquite 
is  an  Aztec  word  (mezquitl),  coming  down  through  the  Spanish.  Other 
names  for  the  tree  are  algaroba,  honey  locust,  honey  pod,  and  ironwood. 

The  largest  size  of  mesquite  is  found  along  the  Rio  Grande  in 
southern  Texas  where  trees  three  feet  in  diameter  and  fifty  feet  high  are 
found,  but  individuals  of  that  size  are  rare.  The  species  is  supposed  not 
to  extend  west  of  New  Mexico,  but  varieties  grow  farther  west. 

The  leaves  are  compound,  with  twenty  or  more  leaflets.  The 
foliage  is  thin  and  casts  a  penumbrous  shadow;  trees  generally  occur 
wide  apart,  and  there  is  enough  sunshine  reaching  the  ground  to  satisfy 
grass  and  other  plants  growing  there.  The  pods  are  from  four  to  nine 
inches  long,  and  each  contains  from  ten  to  twenty  seeds.  The  principal 
growth  of  this  tree  in  the  United  States  is  in  Texas.  It  has  been 
planted  in  Hawaii  and  has  run  wild  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  group. 
It  is  of  slow  growth,  but  of  remarkable  vitality,  holds  its  own,  and  gains 
ground  in  the  face  of  obstacles. 

Persons  well  acquainted  with  conditions  in  Texas,  both  past  and 
present,  say  that  the  mesquite  area  is  at  least  double  now  what  it  was 
when  the  state  came  into  the  Union.  Old  stands  were  scattered  here 
and  there,  but  hundreds  of  square  miles  which  were  in  grass  only,  and 
little  of  that,  half  a  century  ago,  now  support  forests  of  mesquite.  It  is 
perhaps  a  misnomer  to  designate  some  of  these  stands  as  forests,  for 
they  present  a  rather  ragged  and  sorry  appearance,  but  they  are  forests 
in  the  process  of  forming.  The  old  growth,  which  is  found  principally 
in  the  counties  bordering  on  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  is  made  up  of 
trunks  of  large  size,  but  the  stands  that  have  come  on  within  the  past 
fifty  or  sixty  years  are  of  smaller  trees.     A  large  mesquite  trunk  is  from 


♦Botanists  have  had  much  controversy  among  themselves  concerning  mes- 
quite. particularly  as  to  what  is  its  correct  name.  In  giving  in  these  pages  some  of 
the  important  facts  concerning  this  interesting  tree,  or  group  of  species  and  varieties, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  touch  the  points  in  dispute. 


560  American  Forest  Trees 

one  to  three  feet  in  diameter;  a  small  one  from  one  foot  down  to  an  inch 
or  two.  A  person  would  need  to  hunt  from  center  to  circumference  of 
Texas  to  find  many  mesquite  trunks  that  would  make  a  straight  sawlog 
twelve  feet  long.  The  tree  is  generally  one  of  the  most  crooked,  de- 
formed and  unpromising  in  the  whole  country ;  and  its  habit  of  dividing 
into  forks  near  the  ground,  like  a  peach  tree,  makes  it  still  more  difficult 
to  make  use  of.  In  fact,  in  winter  when  mesquite  trees  are  bare  of 
leaves  the  appearance  of  a  forest  reminds  the  observer  of  an  old,  neglect- 
ed, diseased,  moss-grown  peach  orchard  in  the  eastern  states;  but  in 
summer  the  leaves  conceal  much  of  the  trunk  scaliness  and  deformity, 
and  there  is  something  positively  restful  and  attractive  in  the  prospect 
of  a  wide  range  of  these  trees,  covering  hills  and  prairies.  The  leaves  are 
compound  like  the  acacias,  and  are  delicate  and  graceful. 

The  spread  of  mesquite  in  the  last  fifty  or  seventy-five  years  has 
been  attributed  to  the  checking  of  grass  fires  which  Indians  once  set 
yearly  to  keep  the  prairies  open.  The  dispersion  of  the  trees  is  facili- 
tated by  the  scattering  of  seeds  by  cattle  which  feed  on  the  pods.  It  is 
a  tree  hard  to  kill.  Roots  send  up  sprouts  year  after  year  during  long 
periods.  Sometimes,  but  not  often  in  Texas,  when  adverse  circum- 
stances become  so  severe  that  the  mesquite  tree  can  no  longer  survive 
above  the  surface,  it  grows  beneath  the  ground,  sending  only  a  few 
sprouts  up  for  air.  "Dig  for  wood"  is  a  term  applied  to  trees  of  that 
kind,  when  fuel  is  dragged  out  with  mattocks,  grab  hooks,  and  oxen. 

The  roots  of  the  mesquite  penetrate  farther  beneath  the  surface 
for  water  than  any  other  known  tree  in  this  country.  Depths  of  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  are  occasionally  reached.  Well  diggers  on  the  frontiers 
learned  to  go  to  the  mesquite  for  water.  Large  trunks  never  develop 
unless  their  roots  are  abundantly  supplied  with  moisture.  Railroad 
engineers  on  the  "Staked  Plains"  of  northwestern  Texas  tvuned  that 
knowledge  to  account  in  boring  wells. 

Though  mesquite  is  seldom  or  never  mentioned  in  the  lumber 
business,  it  is  and  has  been  one  of  the  most  important  trees  of  the  region. 
Its  fuel  value  is  very  great.  It  has  cooked  more  food,  warmed  more 
buildings,  burned  more  bricks,  than  any  other  wood  in  Texas.  The 
tannic  acid  in  it  injures  boilers  and  it  is  not  much  used  for  steam  pur- 
poses. It  is  very  high  in  ash.  A  cord  of  mesquite  wood  when  burned 
leaves  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  ashes.  This  exceeds  five 
fold  the  ashes  left  when  white  oak  is  burned. 

Mesquite  is  a  high-grade  furniture  material,  though  it  is  difficult  to 
work  because  of  its  exceeding  hardness.  Ordinary  wood-working  tools 
and  machinery  will  not  stand  it.  Suites  of  nine  pieces  are  sold  in  some 
southwestern  cities  at  $200  or  S300.     The  merchants  find  difficulty  in 


American  Forest  Trees  561 

getting  mesquite  furniture  made.  Factories  do  not  want  to  handle  it, 
though  the  articles  sell  higher  than  mahogany.  Large,  heavy  tables, 
deeply  carved,  are  sold  in  some  of  the  cities,  but  all  seem  to  be  made  to 
order  and  largely  by  hand.  The  appearance  of  the  polished  and  finished 
wood  is  a  little  lighter  in  color  than  mahogany.  It  is  not  uniform  in 
color,  but  shades  from  tone  to  tone  in  the  same  piece.  A  little  of  the 
lighter  colored  sapwood  is  worked  in  with  pleasing  effect.  Some  of  the 
tones  resemble  black  walnut,  and  some  suggest  the  luster  of  polished 
cherry. 

Mesquite  is  brittle.  Pieces  of  large  size  may  be  broken  by  a  few 
blows  with  an  ax.  It  has  about  half  the  strength  of  white  oak,  and  is 
very  low  in  elasticity.  The  wood  has  been  used  for  two  hundred  years — 
possibly  for  thousands  of  years — as  beams  and  sills  for  adobe  houses; 
but  it  is  not  required  to  carry  much  weight.  Spaniards  employed  it  in 
building  their  churches  and  forts  within  its  range.  A  timber  taken  from 
the  Alamo,  at  San  Antonio,  Texas,  in  1912,  was  said  to  have  served 
more  than  190  years  with  no  sign  of  decay.  Fence  posts  survive  the 
men  who  set  them.  Paving  blocks  outlast  sandstone  subjected  to  the 
same  use.  Railroads  in  southern  Texas  employ  this  wood  for  crossties, 
but  it  is  so  hard  that  holes  must  be  bored  for  the  spikes. 

Mesquite  baskets  are  made  by  hand  of  splits  the  size  of  knitting 
needles,  some  of  white  sapwood,  others  of  dark  heartwood.  Such 
baskets,  large  enough  to  contain  five  quarts,  sell  in  the  curio  shops  at 
San  Antonio  for  $1.25  each.  Some  wagon  makers  insist  that  mesquite 
is  in  the  same  class  with  Osage  orange  for  wagon  felloes  in  hot,  dry 
regions;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  much  of  it  is  so  used.  The  brittle- 
ness  of  the  wood  is  against  it,  in  use  as  felloes,  except  for  vehicles  of  the 
heaviest  sort  where  large  pieces  are  demanded. 

Among  the  uses  of  mesquite,  by-products  are  an  important  con- 
sideration. The  pods  are  food  for  farm  stock.  Before  the  first  railroad 
reached  San  Antonio  mesquite  pods  were  a  regular  market  commodity. 
The  Mexicans  know  how  to  make  bread  and  brew  beer  from  the  fruit; 
tan  leather  with  the  resin;  dye  leather,  cloth,  and  crockery  with  the 
tree's  sap;  make  ropes  and  baskets  of  the  bark.  Parched  pods  are  a 
substitute  for  coffee ;  bees  store  honey  from  the  bloom  which  remains  two 
months  on  the  trees;  riled  water  is  purified  with  a  decoction  of  mesquite 
chips;  vinegar  is  made  from  the  fermented  juice  of  the  legumes;  tomales 
of  mesquite  bean  meal,  pepper,  chicken,  and  comshucks;  mucilage  from 
the  gum;  and  candy  and  gum  drops  from  the  dried  sap. 

One  of  the  most  promising  uses  for  this  wood  is  in  turnery.  Short 
lengths  can  be  utilized  to  advantage.  The  artistic  color  fits  it  for  the 
manufacture  of  lodge  gavels,  ciu-tain  rings,  goblets,  plaques,  trays,  and 


562  American  Forest  Trees 

numerous  kinds  of  novelties.  Spindles  for  grills  and  stairways  do  not 
suffer  in  comparison  with  black  walnut,  mahogany,  cherry,  and  teak. 
The  wood  is  porous,  annual  rings  narrow  and  indistinct,  and  the  medul- 
lary rays  thin  and  inconspicuous. 

A  variety  (Prosopis  juliflora  glandulosa)  is  foimd  from  Kansas  to 
eastern  Texas,  and  also  in  Arizona  and  California.  It  is  the  common 
mesquite  of  eastern  Texas.  Another  variety  (Prosopis  juliflora  velulina) 
occurs  in  some  of  the  hot  valleys  of  southern  Arizona  and  southward  in 
Mexico. 

SCREWBEAN  (Prosopis  odoraia)  is  known  also  as  screwpod  mesquite,  and  tornillo. 
The  name  is  due  to  the  pod's  habit  of  growing  in  spiral  form,  there  being  a  dozen  or 
more  tight  twists.  The  flowers  appear  in  early  spring  and  new  crops  follow  until 
summer.  The  pods  ripen  early  in  autumn  or  late  in  sununer,  and  many  become  in- 
fested with  grubs.  The  tree  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  high,  and  a  foot  or  less 
in  diameter.  Its  range  extends  from  western  Texas  and  Utah  and  Nevada  through 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  to  southern  California.  The  wood  is  stronger  and  stitfer 
than  common  mesquite,  but  a  little  lighter.  Its  uses  are  much  the  same,  and  it  has 
the  same  habits  of  growth,  including  its  disposition  to  develop  enormous  roots.  The 
name  might  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  fiower  is  rich  in  perfume,  but  such  is  not 
the  case.  The  tree  grows  slowly  and  lives  to  old  age,  if  it  escapes  fire  and  other 
accidents. 

Chalky  Leucena  (Leucana  pulverulenia),  commonly  called  mimosa,  occurs 
in  the  United  States  only  in  southern  Texas,  but  is  somewhat  abundant  in  Mexico, 
where  trees  sixty  feet  high  and  nearly  two  feet  in  diameter  are  sometimes  manu- 
factured into  lumber.  Along  the  Rio  Grande  it  is  called  "tepeguaja"  by  Mexicans. 
This  name  is  said  to  be  equivalent  to  "hardwood,"  which  is  an  appropriate  name. 
It  is  very  smooth  and  handsome  when  finished,  and  is  used  for  tool  handles,  small 
spindles,  grills,  and  other  small  articles,  particularly  products  of  the  lathe.  In  color 
it  resembles  the  lighter  shades  of  mahogany ;  weighs  about  forty-two  pounds  per  cubic 
foot;  foliage  extremely  delicate  and  the  tree  is  highly  valuable  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. It  has  been  planted  outside  of  its  natural  range.  The  pods  sometimes 
exceed  a  foot  in  length. 

Leuc/Ena  (Leuccuna  glauca)  is  small  and  probably  will  never  be  of  much 
importance.  Trunks  are  seldom  more  than  five  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty  feet 
high.  The  tree  grows  in  canyons  and  ravines  in  western  Texas.  The  compound 
leaves  are  six  or  seven  inches  long,  with  thirty  or  less  pairs  of  leaflets;  fruit  is  a  pod 
six  or  eight  inches  long.     The  rich  brown  wood  is  streaked  with  red. 


SWEET  BIRCH 


SWEET  BIRCH 

{Betula  Lenta) 

TEN  species  of  birch  occur  in  the  United  States,  including  Alaska. 
Six  are  eastern  and  four  western.*  Sweet  birch  is  known  by  that 
name  in  many  localities,  but  in  others  as  black  birch,  cherry  birch,  river 
birch,  mahogany  birch,  and  mountain  mahogany.  Its  range  extends 
from  Newfoundland  to  northwestern  Ontario,  south  to  southern  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  and  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina.  Probably  the  best  development  of  the  species  is  found 
in  the  Adirondack  region  of  northern  New  York,  in  the  northern  penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  through  southern  Ontario,  and  along  the  mountain 
ranges  southward  through  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia. 

It  attains  a  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  two 
or  three.  It  prefers  deep,  moist,  rich  soil,  but  will  grow  in  comparatively 
dry,  rocky  ground.  Its  seeds  are  produced  in  large  numbers  and  are 
scattered  by  the  wind  a  hundred  feet  or  more  from  the  parent  tree.  They 
lack  the  wing  power  and  the  buoyancy  of  the  seeds  of  some  of  the  other 
birches,  but  they  manage  to  get  themselves  sown  in  suflScient  numbers, 
and  their  powers  of  germination  are  good. 

The  young  seedling  comes  into  existence  with  smooth  bark,  but  it 
does  not  keep  it  through  life.  As  age  increases,  the  bark  becomes 
rough  and  black.  It  is  not  shed  in  papery  rolls  and  flakes  as  is  the  bark 
of  river  birch,  yellow  birch,  and  paper  birch,  with  which  it  is  associated 
in  some  parts  of  its  range.  It  is  generally  an  easy  tree  to  identify  and 
the  black,  rough  bark  is  generally  a  sufficient  guide. 

The  sweet  birch  is  tapped  like  sugar  maple,  but  not  for  the  same 
pm-pose  or  to  the  same  extent — only  an  occasional  tree.  Immense 
quantities  of  sap  will  flow  from  it  during  the  two  or  three  weeks  when  the 
buds  are  swelling  in  the  spring.  It  is  said  that  as  much  as  two  tons  has 
been  known  to  flow  from  a  medium  sized  birch  in  a  single  season.  The 
sap  is  made  into  a  beer  which  has  some  commercial  value,  but  is  chiefly 
used  locally.  One  of  the  ways  of  making  it,  employed  by  farmers  and 
woodsmen,  is  to  jug  the  sap,  put  in  a  handful  of  shelled  com,  and  let 
fermentation  do  the  rest. 

*The  eastern  species,  which  do  not  extend  west  of  the  continental  divide,  are, 
Sweet  Birch  (Betula  lento),  Yellow  Birch  (Betula  lutea),  River  Birch  (Betula  nigra). 
Paper  Birch  (Betula  papyri/era).  White  Birch  (Betula  populifolia)  and  Blue  Birch 
(Betula  caerulea.)  The  western  birches,  none  of  which  are  known  to  extend  much  east 
of  the  continental  divide,  are:  Western  Birch  (Betula  occidentalis) ,  Mountain  Birch 
(Betula  fontinalis).  White  Alaska  Birch  (Betula  alaskana),  and  Kenai  Birch  (Betula 
kenaica).     The  last  two  occur  in  Alaska,  but  not  in  United  States  proper. 


566  American  Forest  Trees 

A  substance  known  in  commerce  as  oil  of  wintergreen  is  procured 
almost  exclusively  from  this  birch,  though  occasionally  it  is  made  from 
the  small  wintergreen  plant  {Gualtheria  procumbens).  The  product  is 
manufactured  in  very  crude  stills  made  by  mountaineers  in  Pennsylvania 
and  southward  along  the  mountains  where  sweet  birch  is  abundant. 
Frequently  the  woodsman's  whole  family  go  into  the  business,  chopping 
down  birch  bushes  and  hacking  them  with  hatchets  into  chips  of  the 
desired  sizes.  The  oil  is  extracted  from  the  hogged  mass  by  a  steaming 
and  roasting  process.  It  is  sold  by  the  quart  to  country  storekeepers 
who  ship  it  to  wholesale  druggists  where  it  is  refined  and  used  to  flavor 
candy,  medicine,  and  drugs.  The  woodsman  who  manufactures  the  oil 
prefers  young  birches  from  half  an  inch  to  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter, 
and  he  usually  procures  them  in  old  logging  grounds  where  seedlings 
have  sprung  up.  It  is  said  that  on  an  average  one  hundred  small 
birch  trees  are  destroyed  for  each  quart  of  oil  that  goes  to  market.  It  is 
a  process  wasteful  in  the  extreme. 

In  the  open  ground,  sweet  birch  develops  a  full  crown,  short  trunk, 
abundance  of  limbs,  with  numerous  slender,  gracefid  twigs  and  small 
branches.  Its  leaves  form  a  dense  mass,  and  they  are  so  free  from 
attacks  by  insects  and  worms  that  diseased  foliage  is  unusual.  That 
cannot  be  said,  however,  of  the  trunk.  It  is  not  particularly  liable  to 
disease,  but  many  old  trees  show  the  results  of  decay.  It  is  of  slow 
growth,  and  a  small  tree  may  be  much  older  than  its  size  indicates.  The 
sapwood  is  generally  thick,  heartwood  forms  slowly,  and  the  contrast 
in  color  between  sap  and  heart  is  strong. 

The  wood  of  sweet  birch  had  few  uses  in  early  times,  except  fuel. 
The  pioneer  sawmill  had  little  to  do  with  it.  Lumber  was  hard  to  saw 
and  was  seasoned  with  difficulty.  Its  tendency  to  warp  was  too  great 
a  tax  on  the  lumberman's  patience  and  ingenuity.  The  only  way  he 
could  hold  it  straight  was  to  cob  a  few  layers  in  the  bottom  of  a  pile,  and 
Stack  thousands  of  feet  of  other  lumber  on  top,  and  leave  it  a  year  or 
two.  That  was  generally  too  much  trouble,  particularly  when  the  wood 
had  slow  sale,  and  the  price  was  low.  Birch  reached  market  in  large 
quantities  only  when  modem  mUls  and  improved  drykilns  came  into 
existence. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  hard,  in  color  dark  brown  tinged  with 
red.  The  light  brown  or  yellow  sapwood  generally  makes  up  seventy 
or  eighty  annual  rings.  The  difference  between  springwood  and  that 
of  the  later  season  is  not  clearly  marked,  and  consequently  the  rings 
are  often  indistinct.  The  wood  is  very  porous,  and  the  pores  are 
diffused  through  all  parts  of  the  ring.  They  are  too  small  to  be  seen  with 
the  naked  eye,  except  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.     The  medul- 


American  Forest  Trees  567 

lary  rays  are  numerous  but  so  small  that  they  appear  on  the  quartered 
wood  merely  as  a  gloss,  which,  however,  gives  the  surface  a  rich  appear- 
ance. 

Forms  known  as  curly  and  wavy  birch  are  highly  esteemed. 
They  are  accidents  of  growth,  well  developed  in  birch,  and  occurring  in 
several  other  woods.  Difficulties  are  encountered  in  assigning  sweet 
birch  its  individual  place  in  the  industrial  world.  As  a  tree  it  is  well 
known,  but  that  is  not  the  case  when  its  lumber  goes  to  market.  The 
sweet  birch  log  goes  into  the  sawmill,  but  when  the  lumber  goes  out  at 
the  other  end  of  the  mill,  it  is  often  simply  birch  having  lost  the  adjective 
"sweet"  somewhere  in  the  operation.  The  reason  is  that  sweet  birch  and 
yellow  birch,  quite  distinct  in  the  forest,  are  often  mixed  and  become 
one,  to  all  intents  and  piu^oses,  when  they  reach  the  market.  That  is 
not  always  the  case,  but  it  frequently  is.  Something  depends  on  the 
region.  The  yellow  birch's  range  is  more  extensive,  and  in  areas  where 
it  is  abundant,  and  sweet  birch  is  not,  it  prevails  in  the  lumber  markets. 
But  south  and  southeast  of  the  great  lakes,  as  well  as  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  country,  the  two  species  mingle,  and  they  are  apt  to  go  to 
market  simply  as  birch.  The  woods  may  be  distinguished  by  a  micro- 
scopic examination,  but  the  ordinary  observer  would  make  many 
mistakes  if  he  attempted  to  tell  one  from  the  other  in  the  lumber  yard. 

The  two  woods  are  different  in  several  physical  properties.  Both 
are  heavy,  but  sweet  birch  weighs  47.47  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  while 
yellow  birch  weighs  only  40.84  pounds,  according  to  tests  averaged  by 
Sargent.  Yellow  birch  rates  a  little  above  the  other  in  breaking  strength. 
Both  are  very  stiff,  but  yellow  birch  rates  superior.  In  most  respects 
the  two  woods  are  put  to  similar  uses — flooring,  interior  finish,  furniture 
— but  for  some  purposes  sweet  birch  is  preferred.  It  is  substituted 
of tener  for  cherry  and  mahogany,  and  for  that  reason  is  known  as  cherry 
birch  or  mahogany  birch.  Its  color  makes  the  substitution  easy,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  grain,  with  a  little  doctoring  with  stains  and  fillers, 
helps  in  the  deception.  The  buyer  may  be  deceived  as  to  the  exact 
kind  of  wood  he  is  getting,  but  he  is  not  cheated  in  the  quality.  Birch 
is  substituted  where  strength  is  required,  as  in  the  rails  of  beds,  the 
frames  of  sofas,  davenports,  large  chairs,  and  certain  parts  of  large 
musical  instruments.  It  is  much  stronger,  and  fully  as  hard  as  cherry 
or  mahogany,  and  as  its  appearance  is  so  much  like  them,  the  article  is 
actually  better  on  account  of  the  substitution.  Sweet  birch  is  largely 
employed  for  various  parts  of  vehicle  manufacture,  particularly  for 
wagon  hubs  and  frames  of  automobiles.  It  is  also  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  sleds,  boats,  and  handles. 

The  demand  is  heavy  and  the  supply  is  diminishing.  The  tree  is  of 


568  American  Forest  Trees 

such  slow  growth  that  few  timber  owners  will  be  inclined  to  wait  for  a 
second  crop,  after  the  old  trees  have  been  cut,  since  150  years  are 
necessary  under  forest  conditions  to  produce  a  merchantable  tree. 

SoNORA  Ironwood  {Olneya  tesoia)  is  a  desert  tree,  and  the  only  representative 
of  the  genus.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  Mexican  state  where  it  is  most  abundant 
and  where  it  was  discovered  in  1852.  It  grows  in  southern  CaUfornia  and  Arizona, 
and  there  it  thrives  in  gulches  and  depressions  in  the  desert,  frequently  associated 
with  mesquite.  It  is  so  heavy  that  perfectly  dry  wood  will  sink  in  water.  The 
heartwood  is  deep  chocolate-brown,  mottled  with  red,  the  thin  sapwood  is  lemon- 
yellow.  Its  hardness  renders  it  difficult  to  work,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  split.  The 
wood  is  made  into  canes  and  other  small  articles  of  great  beauty.  It  is  not  abundant, 
and  the  small  supply  is  remote  from  manufacturing  centers;  otherwise  it  would  be 
more  valuable.  It  is  excellent  fuel,  but  it  is  burned  chiefly  by  stockmen  and  miners 
in  their  camps.  The  largest  trees  are  thirty  feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  an  evergreen,  and  its  pea-like  flowers  brighten  many  a  remote  desert  place. 

Wild  Tamarind  {Lysiloma  lalisiliqxid)  is  forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  two  or  three 
in  diameter,  grows  in  southern  Florida,  and  has  double-compound  leaves,  four  or  five 
inches  long.  The  fruit  is  a  pod  one  inch  wide  and  five  or  less  in  length.  The  wood 
weighs  forty  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  is  neither  strong  nor  tough,  very  low  in  elasti- 
city, is  rich  dark  brown  tinged  with  red,  the  sapwood  white.  It  has  been  reported 
for  boatbuilding,  and  claims  have  been  made  that  it  is  equal  to  mahogany  for  that 
purpose,  but  the  claim  is  of  doubtful  validity,  in  view  of  the  rather  poor  showing  it 
makes  in  several  physical  properties,  though  it  takes  good  poUsh. 


YELLOW  BIRCH 


YELLOW  BIRCH 

(Betula  Luiea) 

THERE  is  little  likelihood  of  mistaking  the  yellow  birch  for  any  other 
as  it  stands  in  the  woods.  Its  points  of  individuality  may  be 
discovered  on  slight  acquaintance,  and  there  is  little  need  of  studying 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  to  find  ways  of  distinguishing  this  birch  from 
other  members  of  the  family.  Its  tattered,  yellow  and  gray  bark  fixes 
it  in  the  memory  of  all  who  have  seen  it  a  few  times.  Two  other  eastern 
birches  have  tattered,  curling  bark  also,  but  they  do  not  look  like  this. 
They  are  the  paper  birch  and  the  river  birch.  The  former  is  too  white  to 
be  mistaken  for  yellow  birch,  and  the  river  birch  is  too  much  the  color  of 
bronze  or  copper.  Yellow  birch  is  named  from  the  color  of  its  bark,  the 
part  which  shows  when  the  outer  layers  break  and  roll  back,  disclosing 
the  fresh,  smooth,  satiny  layers  below.  Sometimes  the  tree  is  called 
silver  birch,  gray  birch,  or  swamp  birch. 

Its  geographic  range  is  bounded  by  a  line  drawn  from  New- 
foundland to  northern  Minnesota,  southward  through  the  Lake  States, 
and  along  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Delaware.  It  follows  the  Appalachian 
ranges  of  mountains  to  eastern  Tennessee  and  western  North  Carolina. 
Generally  the  tree  is  small  near  the  southern  limit  of  its  range.  The 
best  grows  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  but  it  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  Minnesota. 

Few  trees  are  better  equipped  than  yellow  birch  to  perpetuate  their 
species.  It  is  an  abimdant  seeder,  and  the  seeds  are  light,  winged,  and 
they  are  scattered  by  wind  over  long  distances.  Sometimes  they  are 
carried  miles.  Of  course,  most  of  them  fall  in  unfavorable  places,  and 
either  do  not  germinate  or  perish  soon  after;  but  they  are  not  particularly 
choice  in  situations,  and  will  grow  on  bare  mineral  soil,  even  in  old  fields, 
where  they  are  flooded  with  sunshine,  or  they  will  grow  in  deep  shade 
where  a  beam  of  sunlight  seldom  touches  them.  They  often  germinate 
without  touching  mineral  soil,  and  take  root  quickly  and  grow  vigorously. 

It  is  not  unusual  in  the  northern  part  of  the  tree's  range,  and  on 
high  mountains  farther  south,  to  see  yellow  birches  standing  on  high, 
spreading  roots,  two,  three,  or  four  feet  above  the  ground.  That 
peculiar  attitude  is  brought  about  by  the  manner  in  which  the  seed  begins 
to  grow.  It  falls  on  moss  which  occupies  the  top  of  a  log  or  a  stump. 
The  moss  in  the  deep  shade  retains  much  moisture,  and  the  seed  germi- 
nates, grows,  sends  roots  down  the  sides  of  the  log  or  the  stump  until  they 
strike  mineral  soil,  and  become  firmly  fixed.  In  course  of  time  the  log 
or  stump  decays,  and  the  spreading  roots  continue  to  sustain  the 

571 


572  American  Forest  Trees 

trunk,  high  above  the  ground.  This  attitude  of  the  yellow  birch  tree  is 
very  common  in  damp  woods.  Occasionally  the  seed  finds  lodgment  in 
the  moss  on  top  of  a  large  rock.  The  roots  descend  the  sides  until  they 
reach  the  ground,  and  as  the  rock  does  not  decay,  the  tree  grows  to 
maturity  on  the  rock.  The  most  favorable  seed  bed  for  this  species  is  a 
mass  of  rotten  wood  where  a  log  has  decayed  and  fallen  to  pieces.  Fre- 
quently such  a  plot  is  covered  with  yellow  birch  seedlings.  They  have 
the  space  all  to  themselves,  because  the  seeds  of  few  trees  or  plants  will 
grow  in  rotten  wood,  unmixed  with  mineral  soil. 

The  trunk  of  yellow  birch  averages  a  little  smaller  than  that  of 
sweet  birch,  but  may  equal  it  in  some  instances.  Trees  reach  a  height  of 
100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  or  foiu-,  but  a  more  common  size,  even 
in  the  regions  of  best  development,  is  a  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  two  or  less. 

Yellow  birch  was  a  long  time  coming  into  use.  One  of  the  first 
things  learned  about  it  by  early  settlers  in  the  region  where  it  was 
abundant,  was  that  it  decays  quickly  in  situations  alternately  wet  and 
dry.  That  prejudiced  the  woodsmen  against  it,  and  they  were  not 
disposed  to  give  it  a  fair  trial,  as  long  as  there  was  plenty  of  other  timber. 
All  birches  are  subject  to  quick  decay,  if  conditions  are  right  to  produce 
it.  Yellow  birch  in  the  woods  sometimes  dies  standing,  and  when  that 
happens,  the  wood  falls  to  pieces  so  quickly  that  the  bark  may  remain 
standing  with  very  little  inside  of  it  except  powder  of  decayed  wood. 
This  tree  is  seldom  mentioned  in  early  accounts  of  lumber  operations, 
and  practically  never  with  a  good  word.  Operators  generally  left  it 
standing  when  they  cut  the  timber  which  grew  with  it. 
'4  Yellow  birch  is  heavy,  very  strong,  hard,  light  brown  tinged  with 
red,  with  thin,  nearly  white  sapwood.  The  color  of  the  heartwood 
varies  considerably.  The  pores  are  very  numerous,  rather  small,  and 
are  scattered  through  the  wood  with  little  tendency  to  run  in  bands  or 
groups.  The  springwood  blends  gradually  with  the  summerwood  in  a 
way  to  make  the  boundaries  of  the  annual  rings  somewhat  indistinct. 
Medullary  rays  are  numerous,  but  very  thin  and  obsciure.  Quarter- 
sawing  adds  little  or  nothing  to  the  appearance  of  the  wood.  It  has 
poor  figure,  except  an  occasional  tree  with  wavy  or  ciurly  grain,  or  with 
burls. 

The  wood  may  be  readily  stained.  The  pores  hold  the  coloring 
matter  applied,  and  by  varying  the  application,  the  appearance  of  the 
surface  can  be  varied.  The  colors  of  mahogany  and  of  cherry  are  easily 
imparted,  and  yellow  birch  often  imitates  those  woods. 

Vehicle  makers  choose  this  wood  for  its  strength  and  elasticity.  In 
the  North  it  is  manufactured  into  frames  for  cutters  and  sleighs  of  all 


American  Forest  Trees  573 

kinds.  It  is  a  competitor  of  sugar  maple  for  that  purpose.  Hubs  are 
made  of  it  for  horse-drawn  vehicles,  and  its  hardness  gives  long  wear 
where  the  spokes  are  inserted.  That  is  one  of  the  first  points  of  failure 
when  a  soft,  inferior  wood  is  used  for  hubs.     The  spokes  work  loose. 

Manufacturers  of  automobiles  have  tried  out  yellow  birch  as 
material  for  frames ;  it  has  stood  the  test,  and  is  much  used  in  competition 
with  other  woods.  The  amount  demanded  for  that  piu-pose  is  not 
necessarily  large,  but  it  must  be  the  best  wood  that  can  be  had. 

This  material  reaches  the  markets  in  all  grades.  Large  amounts 
are  used  for  packing  boxes,  crates,  and  shipping  containers.  Low 
grades  answer  for  these  purposes,  leaving  the  better  sorts  for  the  more 
exacting  industries.  The  logs  are  cut  in  rotary  veneer  for  baskets, 
and  for  ply  work.  Some  of  the  veneer  in  three-ply  is  worked  into 
commodities  of  high  class,  such  as  seats  and  backs  of  theater  chairs. 

Birch  flooring  competes  closely  with  maple  for  popular  favor.  It 
may  lack  something  of  maple's  whiteness,  but  it  takes  no  second  place 
in  hardness,  smoothness,  and  wearing  qualities.  It  is  made  into 
parquet  flooring  as  well  as  the  ordinary  tongued  and  grooved  article. 
As  such,  the  sap  matches  the  light  colored  woods,  and  the  heart  the  dark. 

It  goes  into  all  kinds  of  interior  house  finish,  from  floor  to  ceiling, 
and  the  finest  grades  are  often  devoted  to  stair  work.  Door  and 
window  frames  are  made  of  it  in  large  quantities,  but  it  is  not  suited  to 
outside  work  exposed  to  weather,  because  of  its  tendencies  to  decay. 
It  is  much  employed  as  door  material.  Furniture  demands  the  same 
class  of  wood.  Medium  priced  articles  may  be  of  solid  birch,  but  the 
best  commodities  are  made  of  veneers  laid  upon  other  woods.  Figured 
birch  is  a  favorite  material  for  that  class  of  work. 

The  more  common  commodities  manufactured  of  this  wood  can  be 
listed  only  by  groups,  because  of  their  great  number.  Novelties  consti- 
tute a  large  class.  One  of  the  earliest  demands  was  from  the  manu- 
factures of  pill  boxes,  such  as  apothecaries  use.  That  was  before  anyone 
had  tried  to  sell  yellow  birch  in  the  general  market,  and  the  demand 
came  principally  from  New  England  and  New  York.  Another  early 
demand  came  from  coopers  who  found  that  barrel  hoops  of  yellow  birch 
were  highly  satisfactory  for  certain  kinds  of  vessels.  Fish  kits  were 
among  the  first  to  appear  in  birch  hoops.  Small  saplings  were  used, 
not  over  two  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  large  enough  to  make  two 
hoops  by  splitting.  The  bark  was  left  on,  and  the  identity  of  the  wood 
was  never  in  doubt,  because  when  the  sapling  is  of  that  size,  the  bark  is 
a  fine  yellow.  It  has  not  yet  commenced  to  crack  open  and  roll  up,  as 
it  does  later.  Millions  of  birch  hoops  are  still  produced  yearly  in  the 
United  States,  but  all  of  them  are  not  of  this  species.     The  hoop  busmess 


574 


American  Forest  Trees 


has  existed  much  more  than  a  century,  and  millions  of  young  birches 
have  been  cut  every  year  to  meet  the  demand. 

Birch  broom  handles  have  been  a  commodity  since  the  first  lathe 
went  to  work  on  that  product.  They  are  made  of  all  the  commercial 
birches,  but  yellow  birch  contributes  a  large  part.  Other  handles  are 
manufactured  of  it  also,  such  as  are  fitted  to  hand  saws,  planes,  drawing 
knives,  chisels,  and  augers. 


RIVER  BIRCH 


I 

^^^^^B 

HI 

■K^^V^MHi 

■ 

m 

^HO^B    .  ■■r^^^^^^^^^ 

I 

shIH 

RL'^i^^l'^  l9Pm  rvlF^^rraB^ 

[^^H 

Npbb^bbv^^';^.       ^Skl^^ 

IHH 

^^K^Sm^^^^'^f^^^&^Stm. 

River  Birch 

RIVER  BIRCH 

(Bcttda  Nigra) 

THIS  tree  is  known  as  red  birch,  river  birch,  water  birch,  blue  birch, 
black  birch,  and  simply  as  birch.  The  narae  red  birch  refers  to 
the  color  of  the  bark  which  is  exposed  to  view  in  the  process  of  exfolia- 
tion. The  trunk  is  constantly  getting  rid  of  its  outer  bark,  and  in  doing 
so,  the  exterior  layers  are  rolled  back,  hang  a  while,  and  are  gradually 
whipped  off  by  the  wind.  The  new  bark  which  is  exposed  to  view  when 
the  old  is  rolled  back  is  reddish.  Its  color  varies  considerably,  some- 
times suggesting  the  tint  of  old  brass,  again  it  is  brown,  but  people  in 
widely  separated  regions  have  seen  fit  to  call  the  tree  red  birch  because 
of  the  color  of  its  bark.  The  name  black  birch  is  not  appropriate, 
though  the  old  bark  near  the  base  of  large  trunks  may  suggest  it.  No 
reason  can  be  assigned  for  calling  it  blue  birch,  unless  the  foliage  in  early 
summer  may  warrant  such  a  term.  River  birch  and  water  birch  are 
more  appropriate,  as  these  names  indicate  the  situations  where  the 
species  grows.  It  clings  to  water  courses  almost  as  closely  as  sycamore. 
A  favorite  attitude  of  the  tree  is  to  lean  over  a  river  or  pond,  with  the 
long,  graceful  limbs  almost  touching  the  water. 

Nature  seems  to  recognize  the  tree's  habit  of  hanging  over  muddy 
banks,  and  has  prepared  it  for  that  manner  of  life.  Seeds  are  ripe 
early  in  summer  when  the  rivers  are  falling.  They  are  scattered  by 
myriads  on  the  muddy  shores  and  upon  the  water.  Those  which  fall  in 
the  mud  find  at  once  a  suitable  place  for  germination,  and  those  whose 
fortune  it  is  to  drop  in  the  water  float  away  with  the  current  or  they  are 
driven  by  the  wind  until  they  lodge  along  the  shores,  and  the  receding 
water  leaves  them  in  a  few  days,  and  they  spring  up  quickly.  Before 
the  autumn  or  early  winter  high  water  comes,  they  are  well  rooted  in  the 
mud  and  sand,  ready  to  put  up  a  fight  for  their  lives. 

The  provision  is  a  wise  one.  If  the  seeds  matured  in  the  fall, 
when  water  is  low,  they  would  be  strewn  along  the  low  shores,  and  before 
they  could  take  root  and  establish  themselves,  the  high  water  and  the 
ice  of  winter  would  destroy  them.  The  seeds  need  mud  to  give  them  a 
start  in  life,  and  they  need  that  start  early  in  summer. 

The  range  of  river  birch  is  less  extensive  than  that  of  the  other 
important  eastern  birches,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  limited.  Its  eastern 
boundary  is  in  Massachusetts,  its  western  in  Minnesota,  and  it  adheres 
fairly  well  to  a  line  drawn  between  the  two  states.  Its  range  extends 
200  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  covers  most  of  the  southern  states. 
It  is  found  in  an  area  of  nearly  1 ,000,000  square  miles,  but  is  scarce  in 


578  American  Forest  Trees 

most  of  it.  Id  certain  restricted  localities  it  is  fairly  abundant,  but  there 
are  thousands  of  square  miles  in  the  limits  of  its  range  which  have  not 
a  single  tree.  Its  greatest  development  is  in  the  south  Atlantic  states, 
and  in  the  lower  Mississippi  basin. 

Trees  at  their  best  are  from  eighty  to  ninety  feet  high  and  from 
two  to  four  in  diameter,  but  most  trunks  are  less  than  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter. The  tree  frequently  forks  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  from  the  ground, 
or  occasionally  sends  up  several  stems  from  the  ground.  Forms  of  that 
kind  are  practically  useless  for  lumber. 

The  wood  is  among  the  lightest  of  the  birches  and  weighs  35.91 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  rather  hard,  medium  strong,  the  heartwood 
light  brown  in  color,  with  thick,  pale  sapwood.  It  rates  below  sweet  and 
yellow  birch  in  stiffness,  is  very  porous,  but  the  pores  are  quite  small, 
and  can  scarcely  be  seen  without  a  magnifying  glass.  They  are  diffused 
throughout  the  entire  annual  ring.  There  is  no  marked  difference  in 
the  appearance  of  the  springwood  and  that  of  the  late  season.  The 
medullary  rays  are  very  small  and  have  little  effect  on  the  appearance 
of  the  wood,  no  matter  in  what  way  the  sawing  is  done. 

The  wood  is  apt  to  contain  pith  flecks  and  streaks.  These  are 
small,  brown  spots  or  lines  scattered  at  random  through  the  wood. 
They  are  a  blemish  which  is  not  easily  covered  up  if  the  wood  is  to  be 
polished;  but  they  are  small  and  may  not  be  objectionable.  The  flecks 
are  caused  by  insects  which,  early  in  the  season,  bore  through  the  bark 
into  the  cambium  layer  (the  newly-formed  wood),  where  eggs  are 
deposited.  The  young  insect  cuts  a  tunnel  up  or  down  along  the  cam- 
bium layer,  an  inch  or  less  in  length  and  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  wide. 
This  gallery  subsequently  fills  with  brown  deposits  which  remain  perma- 
nently in  the  wood.  Sometimes  these  deposits  are  sufficiently  hard  to 
turn  the  edge  of  tools. 

River  birch  is  widely  used  but  in  small  amounts.  It  may  properly 
be  described  as  a  neighborhood  wood— that  is,  wherever  it  grows  in 
considerable  quantity  it  is  put  to  use,  but  nearly  always  in  a  local  way. 
For  example,  in  Louisiana,  where  it  is  as  abundant  as  in  any  other  state, 
it  is  a  favorite  material  for  ox  yokes,  and  no  report  from  that  state  has 
been  made  of  its  employment  for  any  other  purpose.  The  reason  given 
for  its  extensive  use  for  ox  yokes  there  is  that  it  is  very  strong  for  its 
weight,  and  that  it  resists  decay.  The  yokes  there  are  usually  left  out  of 
doors  when  not  in  use,  and  the  dampness  and  hot  weather  cause  rapid 
decay  of  most  woods.  The  birches  are  usually  listed  as  quick-decaying 
woods,  but  the  verdict  from  Louisiana  seems  to  be  that  river  birch  is  an 
exception. 

Plain  furniture  is  made  of  it,  and  the  manufactxirers  of  woodenware 


American  Forest  Trees  579 

find  it  suitable  for  most  of  their  commodities.  It  is  sometimes  listed  as 
wooden  shoe  material,  but  no  particular  instance  has  been  reported  where 
it  has  been  so  used  in  this  country.  In  Maryland  some  of  the  manu- 
facturers of  peach  baskets  make  bands  or  hoops  of  it,  and  pronounce  it 
as  satisfactory  for  that  purpose  as  elm. 

The  supply  is  not  in  much  danger  of  exhaustion.  The  species  is 
equipped  to  take  care  of  itself,  occupying  as  it  does,  ground  not  in  de- 
mand for  farming  purposes.  When  a  tree  once  gets  a  start  it  has  a 
chance  to  escape  the  ax  until  large  enough  for  use. 

White  Alaska  Birch  (Betula  alaskana)  is  usually  called  simply 
white  birch  where  it  grows.  It  is  not  exclusively  an  Alaska  species 
though  that  is  the  only  place  where  it  touches  the  territory  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  closely  related  to  the  white  birches 
of  northern  Asia,  but  the  relationship,  if  it  exists,  has  not  been  establish- 
ed. In  Alaska  it  grows  as  far  north  as  any  timber  extends.  It  was  first 
discovered  and  reported  in  1858  on  the  Saskatchewan  river,  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  its  range  is  now  known  to  extend  down  the  valley 
of  the  Mackenzie  river  toward  the  Arctic  ocean  to  a  point  more  than  100 
miles  north  of  the  Arctic  circle.  It  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Alaska 
both  along  the  coast  and  in  the  interior.  In  some  portions  of  that  terri- 
tory it  is  an  important  source  of  fuel.  Trees  are  from  twenty-five  to 
sixty  feet  high,  and  from  six  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  bark 
is  thin  and  often  nearly  white,  separating  into  thin  scales.  The  tree 
bears  typical  birch  cones,  but  larger  than  those  of  some  of  the  other 
species.  No  tests  of  the  wood's  physical  properties  have  been  made,  but 
it  looks  like  the  wood  of  paper  birch,  and  will  probably  attain  to  con- 
siderable importance  in  the  future,  since  it  grows  over  a  large  area,  and 
in  many  parts  is  abundant.  There  remain  many  things  for  both 
botanists  and  wood-users  to  investigate  concerning  this  tree  which  has 
a  range  of  more  than  half  a  million  square  miles. 

Western  Birch  {Betula  occidentalis)  is  believed  to  be  the  largest 
birch  in  the  world,  and  yet  it  is  not  of  much  commercial  importance  in 
the  United  States,  because  of  scarcity,  occurring  only  in  northwestern 
Washington  and  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  British  Columbia,  as  far  as  its 
range  has  been  determined.  It  resembles  paper  birch,  and  has  often 
been  supposed  to  be  that  tree.  The  people  in  the  restricted  region 
where  it  grows  speak  of  it  simply  as  birch.  The  largest  trees  are  100  feet 
high  and  four  feet  in  diameter,  clear  of  limbs  forty  or  fifty  feet.  A 
height  of  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two  are  common.  The  general 
color  of  the  trunk  is  orange-brown,  the  new  bark,  exposed  by  exfoliation, 
is  yellow.  The  tree  prefers  the  border  of  streams  and  the  shores  of 
lakes.     Though  it  is  the  largest  of  the  birches,  its  seeds  are  among  the 


580  American  Forest  Trees 

smallest.  The}'  are  provided  with  two  wings  and  are  good  flyers. 
Manufacturers  of  flooring  and  interior  finish  in  Washington  reported  the 
use  of  315,000  feet  of  this  birch  in  191 1 .  That  was  the  only  use  found  for 
it  in  the  only  state  where  it  grows.  Information  is  meager  as  to  the 
probable  quantity  of  this  birch  available.  It  has  been  reported  in 
Idaho,  but  exact  information  on  the  subject  is  lacking. 

Mountain  Birch  (Betula  fontanalis)  is  a  minor  species  concerning  which  there 
has  been  much  contention  among  botanists.  It  has  finally  been  called  mountain 
birch  because  it  grows  on  mountains,  as  high  as  10,000  feet  among  the  Sierra  Nevadas 
in  California.  It  has  many  local  names  for  a  tree  so  small  as  to  be  almost  a  shrub 
throughout  most  of  its  range:  Black  birch,  sweet  birch,  cherry  birch,  water  birch, 
and  canyon  birch.  Its  bark  is  of  the  color  of  old  copper;  wood  is  light  yellowish- 
brown,  with  thick  white  sapwood;  trunks  seldom  exceed  ten  inches  in  diameter  and 
thirty  feet  high;  range  extends  from  northern  British  Columbia  to  California,  and 
along  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Colorado  and  possibly  further  south.  The  uses  of  the 
wood  are  few. 


PAPER  BIRCH 


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Paper  Birch 

PAPER  BIRCH 

(Betula  Papyri/era) 

THIS  tree  is  called  paper  birch  because  the  bark  parts  in  thin  sheets 
like  paper.  It  is  known  as  canoe  birch  from  the  fact  that  Indians 
and  early  white  explorers  and  travelers  constructed  canoes  of  the  bark. 
The  name  silver  birch  is  an  allusion  to  the  color  of  the  bark;  and  big 
white  birch  is  the  name  used  when  the  piu^jose  is  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  white  birch  with  which  it  is  associated  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
its  range.  It  grows  as  far  north  as  Arctic  British  America,  east  to 
Labrador,  south  to  Michigan  and  Pennsylvania,  and  west  nearly  or 
quite  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  indicated  area  exceeds 
1,000,000  square  miles.  The  quantity  of  birch  of  this  species  in  the 
forests  is  imknown,  but  it  runs  into  billions  of  feet,  probably  exceeding 
any  other  single  species  of  burch.  The  tree  sometimes  grows  dispersed 
through  forests  of  other  woods,  sometimes  in  nearly  piu'e  stands.  Persons 
well  acquainted  with  the  species  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  paper 
birch  exists  in  larger  quantities  now  than  at  the  time  when  the  country 
was  first  explored  by  white  men.  That  can  be  said  of  few  other  species; 
but  probably  holds  true  of  lodgepole  pine  in  the  West,  loblolly  pine  in 
the  Southeast,  and  mesquite  in  the  Southwest.  Each  of  these  species 
took  advantage  of  man's  presence  and  influence  to  extend  its  range. 
Cattle  spread  the  mesquite;  the  lodgepole  pine  came  up  in  fire-burned 
tracts;  loblolly  pine  spread  into  abandoned  fields;  and  paper  birch  profit- 
ed by  fires  which  destroyed  large  tracts  of  timber. 

The  seeds  are  light,  are  furnished  with  wings  which  sail  them  long 
distances  through  the  air,  and  they  are  quickly  scattered  over  the 
bmned  areas  where  they  spring  up.  In  the  contest,  they  are  com- 
petitors of  aspen.  Birch  often  captures  the  ground,  but  does  not 
always  do  it.  Some  of  the  largest  stands  in  the  Northeast  occupy  tracts 
bared  by  fire  half  a  century  or  more  ago.  When  paper  bu-ch  does  not 
find  open  tracts,  it  contents  itself  with  sharing  grotmd  with  other 
species.  That  was  the  usual  maimer  of  its  growth  in  the  original  forests ; 
but  it  has  been  quick  to  seize  opportunities  to  take  full  possession. 

It  does  not  like  shade  and,  if  crowded,  one  of  the  first  things  it  does 
is  to  rid  its  lower  trunk  of  all  branches.  Only  limbs  remain  which 
are  at  the  top  where  they  receive  plenty  of  light.  Therefore,  forest- 
grown  paper  birches  have  long,  clean  trunks,  though  they  are  not  always 
straight.  The  largest  trees  are  seventy  feet  high  and  three  in  diameter, 
but  those  fifty  feet  in  height  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  are  above 
rather  than  imder  the  average. 

£83 


584  American  Forest  Trees 

The  bark  of  paper  birch  has  played  an  important  part  in  American 
history,  story,  and  poetry.  It  was  the  canoe  material,  the  roof,  and  the 
utensil  in  its  region.  The  Indians  had  brought  the  art  of  canoe  making 
to  perfection  before  white  men  went  among  them.  The  bark  peels  from 
the  tnmks  in  large  pieces,  and  may  be  separated  into  thin  sheets,  which 
are  very  tough,  strong,  and  durable.  The  Indians  sewed  pieces  of  bark 
together,  using  the  long,  slender  roots  of  tamarack  for  thread.  The  bark 
was  stretched  and  tied  over  a  frame,  the  shape  of  the  canoe,  and  made  of 
northern  white  cedar,  or  some  other  light  wood.  Holes  in  the  bark,  and 
the  partings  at  the  seams,  were  stopped  with  resin  from  balsam  fir, 
wax  from  balm  of  Gilead,  or  resin  from  pine.  The  forest  supplied  all  the 
material  needed  by  the  Indian,  and  a  canoe  thus  made,  and  large  enough 
to  carry  800  or  1,000  pounds,  weighed  no  more  than  fifty  pounds.  Frail 
as  it  seemed,  it  was  good  for  long  service  on  rivers  and  lakes,  and  could 
weather  storms  of  no  small  severity. 

White  men  adopted  the  bark  canoes  at  once,  and  learned  from 
Indians  how  to  make  them.  The  daring  explorers  and  venturesome 
fur  traders  who  threaded  every  river  and  navigated  every  important  lake 
of  British  America,  found  the  birch  canoe  equal  to  every  requirement, 
even  to  attacking  whales  in  the  tidewater  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  The 
bark  from  this  birch  was  used  for  tents  and  the  roofs  of  cabins;  vessels 
in  which  to  store  or  carry  food  were  made  of  it,  as  well  as  beds  on  which 
to  sleep,  and  wrapping  material  for  bundles.  These  uses  have  now 
practically  ceased;  but  as  sport,  recreation,  and  for  the  novelty,  articles, 
from  canoes  to  visiting  cards,  are  still  made  of  the  bark. 

The  wood  of  paper  birch  is  valuable  for  certain  purposes.  The 
trees  are  largely  white  sapwood,  which  is  without  figure.  It  is  as  plain  a 
wood  as  grows  in  the  forest,  but  it  may  be  stained.  That,  however,  is 
seldom  done.  The  heartwood  is  dark  or  red,  and  is  made  into  brush 
backs  and  parquet  flooring,  but  the  hearts  are  small,  and  no  large  quan- 
tity of  that  wood  is  used.  The  largest  use  of  paper  birch  is  for  spools, 
the  common  kind  for  thread.  Some  of  larger  size  are  made  for  use  in 
mills.  The  sapwood  only  is  accepted  by  makers  of  spools.  The  heart 
is  cut  out,  and  most  of  it  is  thrown  away  or  burned  imder  the  boilers. 
The  qualities  of  paper  birch  which  appeal  to  spool  makers  are,  white 
color,  small  liability  to  warp,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  cut 
without  dulling  the  tools.  The  logs  are  worked  into  bars  of  the  various 
spool  sizes,  and  are  carefully  seasoned.  One  of  the  problems  that  must 
be  constantly  solved  is  the  prevention  of  sap  stain  while  the  bars  are 
seasoning.     The  wood  discolors  quickly  and  deeply. 

Tooth  picks,  shoe  pegs,  and  shoe  shanks  are  other  important 
commodities  manufactured  from  paper  birch.     It  has  not  yet  been 


American  Forest  Trees  585 

satisfactorily  converted  into  lumber,  because  it  is  more  valuable  for 
spools,  tooth  picks,  pegs,  and  the  like.  This  wood  is  frequently  listed 
as  a  pulpwood,  and  it  is  quite  generally  believed  that  its  use  for  that 
purpose  is  important.  This  is  apparently  an  error,  as  the  wood  is  not 
even  mentioned  in  statistics  of  pulpwood  output  in  this  country. 

Paper  birch  weighs  37.11  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  strong,  hard, 
tough ;  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  very  small  and  obsciu-e ;  wood 
is  dififuse-porous,  and  earlywood  blends  gradually  with  latewood  in  the 
annual  rings  which  are  not  very  distinct. 

This  is  one  of  the  woods  which  does  not  threaten  to  become  soon 
exhausted.  A  supply  for  half  a  century,  at  present  rate  of  use,  is  in 
sight,  if  no  more  should  grow;  but  in  fifty  years  new  forests,  now  young, 
will  be  large  enough  to  use. 

Kenai  Birch  {Betula  kenaica)  is  an  Alaska  species  concerning  which  com- 
paratively little  is  known,  except  that  its  botanical  identity  and  something  of  its 
range  have  been  established.  Its  small  size,  and  the  remote  regions  where  it  grows, 
do  not  necessarily  indicate  that  it  can  never  be  important.  Scarcity  of  other  woods 
may  give  it  a  place  which  it  does  not  now  occupy.  No  reports  on  the  properties  of 
the  wood  have  been  made.  The  bark  is  deep  brown  in  color.  Trees  are  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  high  and  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  trunks  are 
very  short.  Cones  are  an  inch  or  less  in  length  and  the  double  winged  seeds  are 
very  small.  The  name  applied  to  this  species  relates  to  the  region  where  the  best 
developed  trees  have  been  found.  As  far  as  known,  the  species  is  confined  to  the 
coast  region  of  Alaska  and  to  adjacent  islands  from  the  head  of  Lyim  canal  westward. 
It  has  been  reported  on  Koyukuk  river  above  the  Arctic  circle. 

White  Birch  {Betula  populifolia)  is  known  also  as  gray  birch,  old-field  birch, 
poverty  birch,  poplar-leaved  birch,  and  small  white  birch.  It  is  chiefly  confined  to 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States,  but  grows  as  far  east  as  Nova  Scotia,  and 
west  to  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  It  occurs  on  the  Atlantic  coast  south  to 
Delaware,  and  along  mountain  ranges  to  West  Virginia.  The  names  describe  either 
the  habits  or  the  appearance  of  the  tree.  The  bark  is  white,  and  is  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  a  thicket  of  these  graceful  but  practically  worthless  little  birches.  It 
is  called  an  old-field  species  because  it  quickly  scatters  its  small,  winged  seeds  over 
abandoned  farmland  and  takes  possession  when  it  does  not  have  to  compete  with 
stronger  species.  Poverty  birch  is  an  allusion,  either  to  the  poor  ground  it  occupies 
or  the  unpromising  nature  of  the  tree  itself.  The  resemblance  of  its  leaves  to  those 
of  Cottonwood  leads  some  people  to  prefer  the  name  poplar-leaved  birch.  The  tree 
at  its  best  is  seldom  more  than  forty  feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  A 
height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  is  the  usual  size.  The  stem  is  generally  clothed  with 
branches  nearly  to  the  ground.  The  wood  is  hght,  soft,  not  strong  or  durable,  heart 
light  brown,  thick  sap  nearly  white.  The  form  and  size  of  the  trunk  exclude  it  from 
sawmills,  but  it  has  some  special  uses:  Spools,  shoe  pegs,  and  hoops.  Its  small  size 
does  not  disquahfy  it  for  service  along  those  lines.  The  tree  springs  up  quickly, 
grows  with  fair  rapidity,  and  dies  young.  It  is  cut  tor  cordwood  in  New  England 
and  makes  good  fuel.  It  takes  possession  of  areas  bared  by  fire,  and  protects  the 
ground,  furnishing  shelter  for  more  valuable  species  which  come  later. 

Blue  Birch  (Betula  ccerulea)  is  a  small  tree  of  which  more  information  is  to 
be  desired.     It  is  rarely  more  than  thirty  feet  high  with  a  diameter  of  eight  or  ten 


586  American  Forest  Trees 

inches.  Its  leaves  are  long-pointed,  its  cones  about  an  inch  in  length,  the  bark  is 
thin,  white  tinged  with  rose,  and  is  lustrous.  Bark  is  not  easily  separated  into  layers, 
in  that  respect  differing  from  the  paper  birch.  The  inner  bark  is  of  light  orange  color 
It  is  probably  put  to  no  use,  un'ess  for  fuel  or  as  hoops.  It  is  smallest  of  New  England 
birches  and  its  range  has  not  been  fully  determined,  but  it  is  known  to  grow  m  Mame 
and  Vermont,  and  probably  will  be  found  in  other  parts  of  New  England  and  m  the 
adjacent  regions  of  Canada.  It  has  been  compared  with  a  European  species  of  birch, 
the  Betula  pendula. 


RED  ALDER 


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Red  Alder 

RED  ALDER 

{Alnus  Oregona) 

MANY  species  of  alder  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and 
on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  but  chiefly  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere. Some  of  these  are  trees,  others  are  shrubs.  Six  species  belonging 
in  the  tree  class  grow  in  the  United  States,  besides  others  which  remain 
shrubs.  Some  trees  are  burdened  with  names,  changing  them  with 
locality,  but  not  so  with  alder.  An  adjective  may  accompany  the  name, 
as  red,  white,  seaside,  or  mountain,  to  describe  it,  but  it  is  always 
alder,  no  matter  where  it  grows.  The  different  species  cover  much  of 
the  United  States,  and  few  large  areas  are  foimd  which  have  not  one  or 
more  species.  It  grows  from  sea  level  up  to  7,000  feet  or  more,  but 
some  species  thrive  at  one  elevation,  and  others  above  or  below. 

The  alders  are  old  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  They  had  a  place  in 
the  Eocene  and  Miocene  forests  of  the  old  world  and  new.  It  is  not  ap- 
parent that  they  have  either  gained  or  lost  in  e.xtent  of  range  during  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  which  measure  their  tenancy  on  the 
earth.  They  have  not  been  aggressive  in  pushing  their  way,  nor 
have  they  shown  a  disposition  to  retire  before  the  aggression  of  other 
trees.  Some  alders  bear  seeds  equipped  with  wings  for  wind  dis- 
tribution, others  produce  wingless  seeds  which  depend  cm  water  to  bear 
them  to  suitable  situations  and  plant  them.  Of  course,  the  water-borne 
seeds  are  planted  on  muddy  shores  or  on  the  banks  of  running  streams, 
and  the  trees  of  those  species  are  confined  to  such  situations.  The 
alders  belong  to  the  birch  family. 

Red  alder  is  the  largest  of  the  alder  group  in  this  country.  Mature 
trees  are  from  forty  to  ninety  feet  high,  and  from  one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  northern  limit  of  its  range  crosses  southern  Alaska;  its 
southern  border  is  in  southern  California.  It  is  a  Pacific  coast  tree, 
with  a  north  and  south  range  of  2,000  miles.  Trunks  are  straight,  and 
branches  are  generally  slender.  The  largest  specimens  grow  in  the 
vicinity  of  Puget  Sound.  The  bark  is  thin,  leaves  are  from  three  to  ten 
inches  long,  cones  from  one-half  to  one  inch  in  length,  seeds  have  very 
narrow,  thin  wings,  and  are  about  the  size  of  raddish  seeds.  The  cones 
remain  green  in  color  until  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe,  but  they  finally 
turn  brown,  and  seeds  are  liberated  during  the  fall  and  winter. 

Red  alder  is  given  that  name  because  the  newly  cut  wood  is  liable 
to  change  quickly  to  a  reddish-brown.  This  applies  to  the  whitish 
sapwood  only;  but  since  the  trunk  is  largely  sapwood,  it  is  an  important 
matter.     It  is  not  apparent  whether  the  change  in  color  is  due  to  attack 


590  American  Forest  Trees 

by  fungi,  or  to  some  chemical  change  in  the  sap.  It  is  not  believed  that 
the  change  in  color  weakens  the  wood,  at  least  it  does  not  appear  to  do 
so  immediately.  The  heart  is  reddish,  and  when  dressed  and  polished, 
it  presents  a  fine  appearance. 

Red  alder  when  thoroughly  air  dry  weighs  about  thirty  pounds  per 
cubic  foot,  which  is  slightly  above  the  weight  of  basswood.  It  is  strong 
for  its  weight,  rating  only  eight  per  cent  below  white  oak,  while  in 
stiffness  or  elasticity  it  is  about  twelve  per  cent  above  white  oak.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  season,  is  soft,  stands  weli  when  made  up,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  important  hardwoods  of  the  northwest  Pacific  coast.  More  than 
2,000,000  feet  a  year  go  to  wood-using  factories  in  Washington  and 
Oregon. 

The  Indians  of  the  Northwest,  when  they  had  only  stone  hatchets 
or  the  crudest  kinds  of  metal  tools,  found  red  alder  a  wood  which  worked 
so  easily  that  they  specialized  with  it.  They  made  canoes  of  the  largest 
trunks,  and  all  manner  of  troughs,  trays,  trenches,  platters,  and  dugouts, 
some  of  no  more  than  a  pint  in  capacity,  others  holding  three  or  four 
bushels.  The  Field  Museum  in  Chicago  has  a  collection  of  these  Indian 
utensils  made  of  alder.  The  workmanship  shows  considerable  skill 
mixed  with  barbaric  art.  There  are  carvings  of  eagles  and  bears  which 
are  not  entirely  grotesque.  The  utensils  were  designed  primarily  to 
contain  food  at  ceremonial  feasts,  or  it  was  stored  for  times  of  scarcity. 
Among  them  are  cooking  vessels  of  alder  in  which  meat  was  boiled  by 
filling  the  troughs  with  water  and  dropping  in  hot  stones. 

Furniture  manufacturers  are  the  largest  users  of  red  alder.  Care- 
fully selected  heartwood,  finished  in  the  proper  color,  looks  much  like 
cherry,  though  it  lacks  something  of  the  characteristic  cherry  luster. 
The  sapwood  in  its  natural  color  resembles  the  sapwood  of  yellow  birch. 
The  annual  rings  are  defined  by  narrow  bands  of  dense  summerwood. 
The  pores  are  small  and  diffused  through  the  entire  ring,  as  with  birch. 
Medullary  rays  are  very  thin  and  do  not  show  much  figure ;  neither  do 
the  rings  of  growth,  in  tangential  sawing,  display  much  contrast.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  figureless  wood,  entering  into  practically  all  grades  of 
furniture,  in  the  region  where  alder  is  plentiful,  but  it  shows  to  particu- 
larly good  advantage  in  panels. 

Reports  on  wood-utilization  on  the  Pacific  coast  list  this  wood 
for  archery  bows  but  particulars  as  to  amount  used,  and  why  it  is  used  at 
all,  are  not  given.  The  physical  properties  of  the  wood  do  not  seem  to 
fit  it  for  that  use.  It  is  wanting  in  both  strength  and  elasticity  which 
are  the  prime,  almost  the  only,  factors  considered  in  selecting  bow  wood. 
No  account  has  been  found  of  any  employment  of  alder  for  bows  by 
Indians  of  the  region  where  it  grows. 


American  Forest  Trees  591 

Broom  handle  turners  in  Washington  use  350,000  feet  of  alder  a 
year.  The  smooth  finish  which  may  be  imparted  to  the  wood  constitutes 
its  chief  value  for  broom  handles.  It  is  well  liked  for  porch  columns. 
When  the  center  is  bored  out,  the  wood  seldom  checks.  In  that  respect 
it  resembles  yellow  poplar.  It  takes  paint  well  and  holds  it  a  long  time. 
Comparatively  large  amounts  are  converted  into  interior  finish.  It  is 
made  into  spindles,  newel  posts,  railing,  panels,  molding,  ornaments, 
and  pedestals.     Occasionally  it  is  finished  in  the  wood's  natural  color. 

Many  minor  places  are  found  for  red  alder.  Frames  of  pack 
saddles  are  made  of  it;  it  forms  parts  of  pulleys;  is  available  for  small 
turnery;  and  it  is  sometimes  worked  into  bodies  and  compartments  for 
business  wagons,  such  as  butchers  and  bakers  use.  The  bark  is  rich  in 
tannin  and  is  said  to  be  employed  in  local  tanneries,  but  no  statistics  are 
available  showing  the  annual  supply. 

White  Alder  {Alnus  rhombifolia)  is  known  simply  as  alder  in  the 
region  where  it  grows.  Where  this  tree  and  red  alder  occupy  the  same 
range  they  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same.  The  range  of  white 
alder  extends  from  northern  Idaho  to  southern  California.  It  is  the 
common  alder  of  central  California  where  it  attains  its  best  develop- 
ment, and  the  only  alder  at  low  altitudes  in  southern  California.  Trees 
vary  in  height  from  thirty  to  eighty  feet,  and  in  diameter  from  one  to 
three.  A  common  size  is  fifty  feet  high  and  fifteen  inches  in  diameter. 
Like  most  alders,  it  sticks  close  to  water  courses,  and  is  usually  found  in 
the  bottoms  of  gulches  where  water  flows  most  of  the  year.  The 
flowers  begin  to  appear  in  midsummer  as  dark,  olive-brown  catkins  less 
than  an  inch  in  length.  By  midwinter  they  are  fully  developed,  and  the 
tree  is  loaded  with  catkins  from  four  to  six  inches  long  and  thick  as  lead 
pencils.  In  the  gulches  among  the  elevated  foothills  it  is  not  unusual 
for  trees  to  be  bending  beneath  snow  and  flowers  at  the  same  time. 
That  is  about  the  period  when  the  seeds  of  the  preceding  year  complete 
their  dispersal.  The  cones  hang  closed  nearly  a  whole  twelve  months, 
and  when  they  give  up  their  seeds,  they  often  do  it  slowly.  The  seeds 
are  the  size  of  pin  heads,  and  seem  to  have  had  wings  once,  but  lost 
them.  The  remnants  remain,  but  are  of  no  use.  If  running  water  does 
not  carry  seeds  to  new  grounds  they  lie  beneath  the  parent  tree.  The 
wood  of  white  alder  is  five  pounds  lighter  per  cubic  foot  than  red  alder. 
Its  structure  is  less  satisfactory.  Medullary  rays  are  irregular,  some 
being  thin  as  those  of  sweet  birch,  while  others  are  as  broad  as  rays  of 
chestnut  oak.  Those  of  large  size  seem  to  be  scattered  at  haphazard, 
and  are  so  irregular  and  uncertain  that  no  dependence  can  be  placed  in 
them  for  figure.  Trees  are  largely  sapwood,  which  is  nearly  white 
when  freshly  cut,  but  it  quickly  turns  brown;  heartwood  is  pale,  yellow- 


592  American-  Forest  Trees 

ish-bro\vn.  This  is  said  to  be  one  of  most  quickly-decaying  woods  of  the 
western  forests  when  logs  are  left  lying  in  damp  woods.  The  white  alder 
ought  to  be  suitable  for  nearly  every  purpose  for  which  red  alder  is  used. 

Mountain  Alder  {AInus  ienuifolia)  is  too  small  to  contribute  much  to  the 
lumber  supply  of  the  country,  though  it  may  yield  fuel  in  some  localities  where  there 
is  little  else.  Its  range  extends  from  Yukon  territory  to  Lower  California,  a  distance 
of  4,000  miles,  and  it  nearly  touches  both  the  torrid  and  frigid  zones.  It  is  found 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  in  the  United  States.  Few  trunks  exceed 
twenty-five  feet  in  height  or  six  inches  in  diameter;  but  the  form  is  generally  brush, 
in  tangled  thickets  along  the  courses  of  mountain  streams,  and  on  boggy  slopes,  up  to 
7,000  feet  in  altitude.  The  wood  is  light  brown,  and  there  are  no  reports  showing  its 
use  for  any  purpose  except  firewood. 

Sitka  Alder  {Alnus  sitchensis)  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  aborescent  species, 
and  in  most  instances  it  is  a  shrub  a  few  feet  high.  At  its  best  it  is  thirty  feet  high 
and  eight  inches  in  diameter.  It  grows  from  .Alaska  to  Oregon,  and  eastward  to 
Alberta  and  Montana.  It  is  found  in  mountain  regions  4,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
wood  is  valuable  for  fuel  only.  This  species  was  discovered  about  eighty  years  ago, 
but  was  practically  lost  sight  of  until  recently.  Many  persons  saw  it  but  supposed 
it  to  be  one  of  the  other  alders. 

LancELEaF  Alder  (Alnus  acuminala)  is  a  southwestern  species,  ranging 
through  southern  New  Mexico  and  southern  .Arizona  and  south  4,000  miles  to  Peru. 
In  the  United  States  it  ascends  to  altitudes  of  4,000  or  6,000  feet  where  it  fringes  the 
banks  of  streams,  and  flourishes  in  the  bottoms  of  canyons.  The  largest  trees  are 
thirty  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter.  Flowers  open  in  February  before  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves.     The  seeds  have  small  wings  whteh  are  of  little  or  no  use. 

SEA.SIDE  Alder  (Alnus  maritima)  grows  in  Maryland,  Delaware,  and  Okla- 
homa, and  the  largest  trunks  are  thirty  feet  high  and  five  inches  in  diameter.  It  is 
found  on  the  banks  of  ponds  and  streams.  The  flowers  appear  in  July,  and  the  seeds 
of  last  year's  crop  ripen  at  the  same  time.  The  wood  is  light  soft,  and  brown,  heart 
and  sap  being  scarcely  distinguishable.     The  wood  is  not  used. 

The  European  Alder  (Alnus  glutinosa)  has  been  naturalized  in  a  few  places  in 
the  United  States,  and  several  varieties  are  distinguished  in  cultivation.  A  native 
shrubby  species  (Alnus  rugosa)  is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  eastern  states.  It  is 
not  usually  listed  as  a  tree,  being  too  small,  but  it  is  sometimes  twenty-five  feet  high 
and  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter.  In  Europe  the  charcoal  made  from  alder  is 
considered  excellent  material  for  the  manufacture  of  gun  powder,  and  considerable 
areas  of  alder  in  England  are  held  in  reserve  against  an  emergency.  It  is  probable 
that  the  American  alders  would  answer  as  well  as  the  European  species. 


HORNBEAM 


HORNBEAM 

{Osirya  \  irginiana) 

'~|~\HIS  tree  belongs  to  the  birch  family  and  is  closely  related  to  the 
J.  alders  and  to  blue  beech.  Four  species  of  hornbeam  are  known 
in  the  world,  and  two  of  them  are  in  the  United  States.  One  is  well 
known  to  most  persons  who  are  familiar  with  eastern  hardwood  forests, 
but  the  other  is  seldom  seen  because  of  the  limited  extent  of  its  range. 

The  well-known  hornbeam  is  found  in  the  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence river,  throughout  Nova  Scotia  and  Ottawa,  along  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Huron  to  northern  Minnesota,  south  through  the  northern 
states  and  along  the  Alleghany  mountains  to  the  Chattahoochee  region 
of  western  Florida;  through  eastern  Iowa,  southeastern  Missoiu-i  and 
Arkansas,  eastern  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  the  Trintiy  river  region 
of  Texas.  It  is  known  as  ironwood,  hop-hornbeam,  leverwood,  and 
hardback. 

The  Indians  were  small  users  of  wood  except  for  fuel,  but  they  had 
places  where  they  put  wood  to  special  uses.  They  chose  hornbeam, 
when  they  could  get  it,  for  one  of  these  places.  It  was  a  favorite  ma- 
terial for  the  handles  of  their  stone  warclubs.  The  stone  heads  were 
chipped  to  various  forms,  but  were  usually  egg-shaped  with  a  groove 
round  the  middle  for  fixing  the  handle.  This  was  made  fast  with  thongs 
of  rawhide,  and  was  generally  nearly  or  quite  two  feet  long,  and  slender  as 
a  golf  stick.  Great  strength  and  a  high  degree  of  elasticity  were  required 
to  stand  the  strain  when  a  warrior  swung  his  club  in  battle.  Hornbeam 
meets  these  requirements  exactly,  and  doubtless  the  Indian  found  this 
out  by  experience.  It  is  about  thirty  per  cent  stronger  than  white  oak, 
and  forty-six  per  cent  more  elastic.  The  demand  for  warclub  handles 
made  no  great  inroads  on  the  hornbeam  supply,  but  it  affords  proof  that 
the  Indians  sometimes  used  good  judgment. 

The  different  names  of  this  tree  describe  some  characteristic  of  the 
wood  or  foliage.  The  fruit  resembles  hops,  hence  one  of  the  names. 
Hardness  gives  it  the  other  names  by  which  it  is  known.  It  is  the  custom 
nearly  everywhere  to  call  any  wood  ironwood  if  it  is  extra  hard.  No 
fewer  than  eleven  species  of  the  United  States  are  known  as  ironwood  in 
some  parts  of  their  ranges. 

The  leaves  of  hornbeam  are  simple  and  alternate;  they  taper  to  a 
sharp  point  at  the  end,  while  the  base  is  rounded.  They  are  doubly 
and  sharply  serrate.  In  color  they  are  dark  green  above,  and  lighter 
below,  tufted  in  places,  resembling  birch  leaves  in  some  respects,  al- 
though they  are  quite  different  in  texture,  the  leaves  of  birch  being 


596  American  Forest  Trees 

glossy,  while  those  of  ironwood  are  rough.  They  arc  joined  to  the 
twig  with  a  short  petiole,  hardly  a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  flowers  grow  in  long  catkins,  staminate  ones  sometimes  more 
than  two  inches  long,  covered  with  fringed  scales.  The  pistillate  catkins 
c  :e  usually  shorter.  Hornbeam  blooms  in  April  and  May  and  its  fruit 
ripens  in  August  and  September.  The  seed  is  a  small  nut  equipped 
with  balloon-like  wings,  intended  for  wind  distribution.  The  seeds  are 
often  carried,  rolled,  and  tumbled  considerable  distances.  They  keep 
on  going  until  their  wings  are  torn  off  or  wear  out,  or  until  they  become 
inextricably  entangled  among  twigs  or  other  obstacles.  Comparatively 
few  of  the  seeds  ever  find  lodgment  in  situations  suitable  for  germina- 
tion.    Consequently,  hornbeam  is  scarce. 

It  is  not  easy  to  state  the  average  size  of  the  hornbeam,  though  it  is 
usually  small  and  never  very  large.  Sometimes  it  reaches  a  height  of 
fifty  or  sixty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two  or  more,  but  such  sizes  are 
unusual.  Trees  a  foot  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high  are  more  common. 
The  foliage  is  thin,  and  the  tree  is  satisfied  to  grow  in  shade,  provided 
the  shadows  are  not  too  dense.  The  leaves  must  have  a  little  sunshine, 
and  the  flecks  that  fall  through  the  open  spaces  in  the  forest  canopy 
high  above,  suffice.  The  hornbeam  makes  no  effort  to  overtop  it's 
fellow  trees;  but  when  it  grows  in  the  open,  as  on  a  rocky  bank  or  ridge, 
where  it  catches  the  full  light,  the  crown  puts  on  more  leaves,  and  multi- 
plies its  branches,  and  it  is  no  longer  the  lean  tree  which  some  of  the 
Indians  called  it.  Forest  grown  specimens  produce  clear  trunks,  but 
those  in  the  open  are  limby  almost  to  the  ground. 

Hornbeam  has  neither  smell  nor  taste.  It  bums  well,  the  embers 
glowing  brightly  in  still  air.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  seasoned  wood 
is  fifty-one  pounds.  It  is  strong,  hard,  heavy,  tough,  and  exceedingly 
durable  when  exposed  to  variable  weather,  or  when  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  It  takes  a  beautiful  polish.  Trees  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter 
are  often  found  to  be  hollow. 

The  wood  is  strong,  hard,  tough,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil; 
heartwood  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  or  often  nearly  white;  thick, 
pale  sapwood  which  generally  does  not  change  to  heart  for  forty  or  fifty 
years.  The  annual  rings  are  not  uniform  in  appearance.  Some  are 
easily  distinguishable,  while  others  are  vague.  This  variation  is  due  to 
the  irregular  development  of  the  dark  summerwood  in  the  outer  portion 
of  the  rings.      It  is  at  times  distinct  and  again  is  hardly  discernible. 

The  wood  is  difi'use-porous,  and  the  pores  are  too  small  to  be  easily 
seen  by  the  naked  eye.  The  medullary  rays  are  small  and  obscure. 
In  quarter-sawed  wood  they  show  as  a  silvery  gloss,  but  the  appearance 
is  too  monotonous  to  be  attractive.     Neither  is  there  striking  figure 


American  Forest  Trees  5^7 

when  the  wood  is  sawed  tangentially,  because  of  the  small  contrast  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  yearly  ring.  Hornbeam  may,  therefore,  be  listed 
am.ong  woods  which  have  little  or  no  figure.  No  one  ever  thinks  of  using 
it  for  the  sake  of  its  beauty.  Because  of  the  small  size  and  limited 
quantity  hornbeam  will  never  come  into  commercial  prominence.  Its 
uses  are  almost  entirely  local  and  domestic.  The  lumberman  or  the 
farmer  selects  a  hornbeam  sapling  as  being  the  best  material  obtainable 
for  making  a  wagon  or  sleigh  tongue,  a  skid,  or  a  lever.  The  farmer 
often  laboriously  works  a  section  of  the  fhnt-like  wood  into  minor  agri- 
cultural implements. 

The  statistics  of  sawmill  cut  in  the  United  States  do  not  mention 
hornbeam  even  among  such  minor  species  as  holly,  Osage  orange,  alder, 
and  apple.  However,  it  is  known  that  an  occasional  log  goes  to  saw- 
mills in  the  Lake  States,  and  doubtless  in  other  regions,  and  in  some 
instances  the  wood  is  kept  separate  from  others  and  is  sold  to  fill  special 
orders.  Manufacturers  of  farm  tools  consider  it  the  best  wood  for  rake 
teeth.  That  use  has  come  down  from  the  time  when  farmers  made 
their  own  rakes  and  pitchforks.  They  learned  the  wood's  value 
by  experience,  and  manufacturers  cater  to  the  trade. 

It  is  sometimes  called  lever  wood,  and  that  name  dates  from  long 
ago  when  the  man  who  needed  a  lever  went  into  the  woods  and  cut  one 
to  suit  his  needs.  The  modern  lever  is  usually  somewhat  different  and 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  a  handle.  They  are  seen  in  sawmills 
where  they  manipulate  the  carriage  machinery;  on  certain  agricultural 
implements  where  their  function  is  to  throw  clutches  in  and  out  of  gear; 
sometimes  they  are  used  as  the  handle  by  which  the  rudder  of  a  small 
boat  is  controlled ;  and  occasionally  the  lever  has  a  place  as  an  adjunct 
of  a  wagon  or  log-car  brake.  In  all  of  these  uses  strength  and  stiff- 
ness are  required,  and  durability  is  duly  considered. 

Wagon  makers  and  repairers  find  several  uses  for  hornbeam.  It 
would  be  more  frequently  employed  if  it  were  more  plentiful.  Nearly 
any  blacksmith  who  runs  a  repair  shop  for  vehicles  will  testify  to  that. 
It  fulfills  every  requisite  for  axles;  is  made  into  felloes  for  heavy  wagons; 
and  is  considered  the  best  obtainable  wood  for  the  tongues  of  heavy 
logging  wheels  and  stone  wagons. 

Among  various  occasional  uses  of  this  wood  it  is  listed  by  the 
manufacturers  of  reels  for  garden  hose;  rungs  for  long  ladders;  stakes 
for  sleds,  and  also  for  cross  pieces  and  parts  of  runners  of  sleds;  wedges 
for  the  makers  of  machinery;  and  hammer  and  hatchet  handles.  It  is  a 
pretty  active  competitor  of  dogwood  for  some  of  these  uses,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  for  shuttles,  but  no  report  of  its  use  in  that  capacity 
seems  to  have  been  made. 


598  American  Forest  Trees 

One  of  its  most  common  uses  is  as  fence  posts.  Few  lines  of  fence 
are  built  exclusively  of  hornbeam  posts,  because  not  enough  can  be  had 
in  one  place;  but  posts  are  cut  singly  or  a  few  together  from  Maine  to 
Arkansas,  and  the  aggregate  number  is  large.  The  wood  is  said  to  out- 
last the  heartwood  of  white  oak  when  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
it  is  so  strong  that  posts  of  small  size  stand  the  pull  of  wires  or  the  weight 
of  planks  or  pickets. 

Hornbeam  is  of  slow  growth  and  there  is  little  reason  to  believe 
that  it  will  ever  be  seriously  considered  by  timber  growers;  but  it  will 
doubtless  win  its  way  to  favor  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  has  been 
planted  in  city  parks  in  New  England  and  elsewhere,  and  its  form,  foliage, 
and  habits  are  much  liked.  The  pale  green  pods  or  cones — they  are  not 
exactly  the  one  or  the  other — remain  a  long  time  on  the  branches  and 
are  delicately  ornamental  until  after  the  autumn  frosts  change  their 
green  into  brown.  Then  comes  the  flying  time  of  the  balloon  seeds,  and 
that  is  an  interesting  period  in  parks  and  yards  where  the  tree's  habits 
may  be  closely  studied. 

Knowuton  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  knowltoni)  is  interesting  chiefly  on  account  of 
its  extremely  limited  range,  and  its  far  removal  from  all  its  kin.  It  is  an  exile  in  a 
distant  country.  It  has  thus  far  been  found  only  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  canyon 
of  the  Colorado  river  in  Arizona,  about  seventy  miles  north  of  Flagstaff.  It  occurs  at 
an  elevation  of  6,000  or  7,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Trees  are  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high 
and  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  trunks  usually  divide  a  foot  or  two 
above  the  ground  into  three  or  more  branches,  which  are  of  ten  crooked  and  contorted. 
Such  sizes  and  forms  could  not  be  of  much  value  for  anything  but  fuel,  even  if  abun- 
dant. The  heart  is  light  reddish-brown,  sapwood  thin.  The  leaves  are  round  instead 
of  pointed  at  the  apex,  as  with  the  other  hornbeam ;  but  the  flowers  and  fruit  are  much 
the  same.  Botanists  speculate  in  vain  as  to  how  this  species  happens  to  be  so  far 
removed  from  other  members  of  its  family. 


SILVERBELL 


w    ^ 

PI 

1?        .^^^ 

SiLVERBELL 

SILVERBELL  TREE 

(Mohrodendron  Carolinum) 

THIS  tree  belongs  to  the  storax  family,  which  is  not  a  very  numerous 
family  as  forest  families  are  generally  counted,  but  it  is  old  and 
highly  respectable.  Its  members  are  found  in  the  old  world  and  the 
new  in  both  North  and  South  America,  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  Trees  of  the  storax  family  produce,  or  they  are  supposed 
to  produce,  resins  and  gums,  balsams,  and  aromatic  exudations,  but  some 
give  little  or  none.  The  priests  and  soothsayers  of  idolatrous  nations  of 
ancient  times  laid  great  stress  on  storax.  They  insisted  on  having  the 
resin  as  an  adjunct  to  their  superstitious  rites.  It  was  the  incense 
offered  in  their  worship,  and  they  compassed  sea  and  land  to  obtain  it  for 
that  pm^pose.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  southern  peninsulas  of  Asia 
and  the  far-off  Molucca  islands  were  visited  in  ancient  times  to  procure 
the  incense  which  ultimately  found  its  way  to  the  Mediterranean 
regions. 

It  is,  therefore,  interesting  to  find  that  two  members  of  the  old 
storax  family  are  quietly  living  in  the  coast  region  and  among  the 
mountains  of  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States.  No  one  has 
ever  suspected  that  they  might  be  capable  of  yielding  resinous  incense 
suitable  for  the  altars  of  heathen  gods.  They  are  the  silverbell  tree,  and 
its  little  cousin,  the  snowdrop  tree  {Mohrodendron  diplcrum).  They 
have  had  common  names  a  long  time,  but  their  botanical  names  are  the 
result  of  a  recent  christening.  They  are  named  from  Charles  Mohr  who 
wrote  an  interesting  book  on  the  flora  of  Alabama.  The  silverbell  tree 
is  the  larger  of  the  two  and  deserves  first  consideration. 

It  has  a  somewhat  extensive  range,  but  in  some  parts  it  is  so 
scarce  that  few  persons  ever  see  it.  It  is  found  from  the  moimtains  of 
West  Virginia  to  southern  Illinois,  south  to  middle  Florida,  northern 
Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  and  through  Arkansas  and  western  Louisiana 
to  eastern  Texas.  Under  cultivation,  this  tree  is  known  as  the  snowdrop 
tree  in  Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Florida,  and  Louisiana.  In  Rhode  Island,  under  cultivation,  it  is  also 
sometimes  known  as  the  silverbell  tree,  and  bears  the  same  name  in 
Alabama,  Florida,  and  Mississippi.  In  parts  of  Tennessee  it  is  known  as 
the  wild  olive  tree,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state  as  the  bell  tree.  In 
various  localities  in  Alabama  it  is  referred  to  as  the  four- winged  halesia; 
and  in  others  as  opossumwood.  It  is  indiscriminately  known  in  various 
sections  of  Texas  as  the  rattlebox  and  calico  wood,  and  some  of  the 
furniture  manxifacturers  in  North  Carolina  list  it  as  box  elder,  though  it 


602  American  Forest  Trees 

is  only  distantly  related  to  the  true  box  elder.  In  the  Great  Smoky 
mountains  in  Tennessee,  where  the  species  reaches  its  greatest  develop- 
ment, it  bears  a  variety  of  names,  among  them  being  tisswood,  peawood, 
bellwood,  and  chittamwood. 

The  tree  varies  in  size  from  a  shrubby  form  so  small  that  it  is 
scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  tree,  up  to  a  height  of  eighty,  ninety, 
and  even  more  than  100  feet  with  diameters  up  to  nearly  four  feet.  The 
largest  sizes  occur  only  among  the  ranges  of  the  Great  Smoky  mountains 
in  Blount,  Sevier,  and  Monroe  counties,  Tennessee.  No  reason  is  known 
why  this  tree  in  that  region  should  so  greatly  exceed  its  largest  dimen- 
sions in  other  areas;  but  most  species  have  a  locality  where  the  greatest 
development  is  reached,  and  this  has  found  the  favorable  conditions  in 
the  mountains  of  eastern  Tennessee.  Some  of  the  trees  measure  sixty 
feet  or  more  to  the  first  limbs. 

Lumbermen  of  the  country  are  not  generally  acquainted  with 
silverbell,  as  is  natural  since  its  commercial  range  is  so  limited.  It  is  not 
listed  in  statistics  of  sawmill  cut  or  of  veneer  mills.  The  wood-using 
industries  of  the  country  do  not  report  it,  except  in  the  one  state,  North 
Carolina,  and  there  in  very  small  amounts.  Doubtless,  it  is  occasionally 
used  elsewhere,  but  it  escapes  mention  in  most  instances.  It  has  been 
made  into  mantels  at  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  and  passes  as  birch. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  usually  narrow-ringed,  color  light  brown, 
the  thick  sapwood  lighter.  It  weighs  thirty-five  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
and  when  biuned  it  yields  a  low  percentage  of  ash.  The  wood's  chief 
value  is  due  to  its  color  and  figure.  Best  results  are  not  obtained  by 
sawing  the  logs  into  lumber,  because  the  handsomest  part  of  the  figure  is 
apt  to  be  lost.  It  is  preeminently  suited  to  the  cutting  of  rotary  veneer. 
By  that  method  of  conversion  the  birdseye  and  the  pitted  and  mottled 
effects  are  brought  out  in  the  best  possible  manner.  Veneers  so  cut 
from  logs  selected  for  the  figure,  possess  a  rare  beauty  which  no  other 
American  wood  equals.  There  is  a  pleasing  blend  of  tones,  which  are 
due  to  the  direction  in  which  the  distorted  grain  is  cut.  This  dis- 
tinguishes the  wood  from  all  others  and  gives  it  an  individuality. 
Much  of  the  figure  appears  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  adventitious 
buds,  similar  to  those  supposed  to  be  responsible  for  the  birdseye  effect 
in  maple. 

The  leaves  of  silverbell  are  bright  green  at  maturity  and  are  from 
four  to  six  inches  long  and  two  or  three  wide.  They  turn  yellow  before 
falling  in  autumn.  The  flowers  give  the  tree  its  name,  for  they  resemble 
delicate  bells,  about  one  inch  in  length.  They  appear  in  early  spring 
when  the  leaves  are  one-third  grown,  on  slender,  drooping  stems  from 
one  to  two  inches  long.     The  trees  are  loaded  throughout  the  whole 


American  Forest  Trees  603 

crown,  and  present  an  appearance  that  is  seldom  surpassed  for  beauty 
in  the  forests  of  this  country. 

The  fruit  is  peculiar  and  is  not  particularly  graceful.  It  has  too 
much  the  appearance  of  the  load  carried  by  a  well-fruited  vine  of  hops. 
It  ripens  late  in  autumn  and  persists  during  most  of  the  winter.  There 
is  nothing  in  its  color,  shape,  or  taste  to  tempt  birds  or  other  creatiures  to 
make  food  of  it,  though,  under  stress  of  circumstances,  they  may  some- 
times do  so.  The  fruit  is  two  inches  or  less  in  length  and  an  inch  wide, 
and  has  four  wings,  which  seem  to  be  practically  useless  for  flight.  The 
seed  is  about  half  an  inch  long. 

The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  bright  red-brown  and  about  half  an  inch 
thick,  with  broad  ridges  which  separate  on  the  surface  into  thin  papery 
scales.  The  young  branches  wear  an  early  coat  of  thick,  pale  wool  or 
hairs,  light,  reddish-brown  during  the  first  summer,  but  later  changing 
to  an  orange  color. 

The  botanical  range  of  the  species  is  extensive,  though  the  tree- 
form  is  confined  to  a  few  counties  among  the  southern  Appalachian 
mountains.  The  northern  limit  of  its  range  is  in  West  Virginia  where  it 
is  so  scarce  that  many  a  woodsman  never  recognizes  it.  Unless  it  is 
caught  while  in  the  full  glory  of  its  bloom,  it  attracts  no  attention.  It  is 
not  there  a  tree,  but  a  shrub,  hidden  away  among  other  growth,  along 
mountain  streams  or  on  slopes  where  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  blooming 
shrub  might,  at  a  distance,  be  mistaken  for  a  dogwood  in  full  blossom, 
but  a  closer  inspection  corrects  the  mistake. 

It  is  true  of  this  species  as  of  many  others  that  the  range  has 
been  greatly  extended  by  planting.  The  bell-like  white  flowers  early 
drew  attention  of  niu-serymen  who  were  on  the  lookout  for  trees  for 
ornamental  planting.  It  was  carried  to  Europe  long  ago,  and  graces 
many  a  yard  and  park  in  the  central  and  northern  countries  of  that 
continent.  It  now  grows  and  thrives  in  the  United  States  six  hundred 
miles  northeast  of  its  natural  range,  where  it  endures  the  winters  of 
eastern  Massachusetts,  blooms  as  bounteously  as  in  its  native  haunts 
among  the  shaded  streams  of  the  Alleghany  mountains. 

Snowdrop  Tree  {Mohrodendron  dipterum)  is  a  near  relative  of  the 
silverbell  tree,  and  looks  much  like  it,  except  that  it  is  smaller,  has  larger 
leaves,  and  the  flowers  are  creamy-white.  The  two  occupy  the  same 
territory  in  part  of  their  ranges,  but  they  differ  in  one  respect.  The 
silverbell  tree  grows  with  great  luxiu-iance  among  the  mountains  while 
the  snowdrop  tree  keeps  to  the  low  country  and  is  seldom  or  never  found 
growing  naturally  at  any  considerable  elevation.  It  prefers  swamps  or 
damp  situations  near  the  coast.  While  the  silverbell  tree's  range  in- 
cludes West  Virginia,  that  of  the  snowdrop  extends  no  farther  north  than 


604  American  Forest  Trees 

South  Carolina.  It  follows  the  coast  to  Texas,  and  runs  north  through 
Louisiana  to  central  Arkansas.  Its  range  has  been  greatly  enlarged 
by  planting,  and  the  northern  winters  do  not  kill  it  on  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Erie.  The  largest  trees  are  about  thirty  feet  high  and  six 
inches  in  diameter,  but  the  growth  in  most  places  is  shrubby.  Leaves 
are  four  or  five  inches  long  and  three  or  four  wide.  Flowers  are  one  inch 
long  and  are  borne  in  profusion.  They  constitute  the  tree's  chief  value 
as  an  ornament,  though  the  foliage  is  attractive.  The  bloom  lasts  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  from  the  middle  of  March  till  the  last  of  April. 
The  fruit  has  two  wings  instead  of  four,  as  with  silverbell,  but  occasional- 
ly two  rudimentary  wings  are  present.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  strong, 
color  light  brown,  with  thicker,  lighter  sapwood.  The  smallness  of  the 
trunks  makes  their  use  for  lumber  impossible.  The  species  is  valuable 
for  ornamental  purposes  only,  and  has  been  planted  both  in  this  country 
and  Europe.  It  has  a  number  of  names  by  which  it  is  known  in  different 
localities,  among  them  being  cowlicks  in  Louisiana,  and  silverbell  tree 
in  the  North  where  it  has  been  planted  outside  of  its  natural  range. 


SYCAMORE 


SYCAMORE 

{Platanus  Occidentalis) 

PROBABLY  no  person  with  a  practical  knowledge  of  trees  ever 
mistakes  sycamore  for  anything  else.  The  tree  stands  clear-cut 
and  distinct.  Until  the  trunk  becomes  old,  it  sheds  its  outer  layer  of 
bark  yearly,  or  at  least  frequently,  and  the  exfoliation  exposes  the  white, 
new  bark  below.  The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  the  large  branches 
are  white  and  conspicuous  in  the  spring,  and  are  recognizable  at  a  long 
distance.  No  other  tree  in  the  American  forest  is  as  white.  The  nearest 
approach  to  it  is  the  paper  birch  of  the  North,  or  the  white  birch  of  New 
England. 

Notwithstanding  the  tree's  individuality,  it  has  a  good  many 
names.  It  is  generally  known  as  sycamore  throughout  the  states  of  the 
Union,  but  it  is  frequently  called  buttonwood  in  Vermont,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Peimsyl- 
vania,  Delaware,  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Nebraska,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Ohio,  and  Ontario ;  buttonball  tree  in  several  of  the  eastern  states  and 
occasionally  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Nebraska;  the  plane 
tree  in  Rhode  Island,  Delaware,  South  Carolina,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and 
Iowa;  the  water  beech  in  Delaware;  the  platane,  cottonier,  and  bois 
puant  in  Louisiana.  Probably  the  finest  growth  of  the  sycamore  ever 
encountered  was  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  these  states  still  contain  iso- 
lated patches  of  magnificent  specimens  of  the  wood.  The  Black 
Swamp  of  Ohio  was  originally  a  famous  sycamore  country,  of  which 
Defiance  was  the  center  of  lumber  manufacture.  Many  parts  of  Indiana 
produced  a  good  sycamore  growth,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  timber 
of  excellent  quality  still  exists,  but  is  now  largely  owned  by  farmers 
who  are  generally  holding  it  out  of  the  market. 

The  range  of  sycamore  extends  from  Maine  to  Nebraska,  and  south 
to  Texas  and  Florida.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  American  hardwoods, 
and  in  diameter  of  trunk  it  is  exceeded  by  none.  Trees  are  on  record 
that  were  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  it  was  not  unusual  in 
the  primeval  forests  for  them  to  tower  nearly  or  quite  125.  In  height  a 
number  of  hardwoods  exceed  it,  the  yellow  poplar  in  particular;  but 
none  of  them  has  a  larger  trunk  than  the  largest  sycamores.  However, 
the  mammoths  are  generally  hollow.  The  heart  decays  as  rings  of  new 
growth  are  added  to  the  outside  of  the  shell.  So  large  were  the  cavities 
in  some  of  the  sycamores  in  the  original  forests  that  more  than  one  case  is 
on  record  of  their  being  used  by  early  settlers  as  places  of  abode. 


608  American  Forest  Trees 

The  tree  thrives  best  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  rivers  and  creeks. 
It  needs  abundance  of  water  for  its  roots,  but  is  not  insistent  in  its  de- 
mand for  deep,  fertile  soil,  for  it  grows  on  gravel  bars  along  water  courses, 
provided  some  soil  and  sand  are  mixed  with  the  gravel.  Great  age  is 
doubtless  attained,  but  records  are  necessarily  lacking  in  cases  where  the 
annual  rings  of  growth  must  be  depended  upon;  because  the  hollow 
trunks  have  lost  most  of  their  rings  by  decay. 

Sycamore  bears  abundance  of  light  seed  which  is  scattered  short 
distances  by  wmd  and  much  farther  by  running  water.  Its  ideal  place 
for  germinating  is  on  muddy  shores  and  wet  flats.  Here  the  seeds  are 
deposited  by  wind  and  water,  and  in  a  short  time  multitudes  of  seedlings 
spring  up.  Though  most  of  them  are  doomed  to  perish  before  they  at- 
tain a  height  of  a  few  feet,  survivors  are  sufficient  to  ossure  thick  stands 
on  small  areas.  The  trunks  grow  tall  rapidly,  and  until  they  reach 
considerable  size,  they  remain  solid  and  make  good  sawlogs .  but  at  an 
age  of  seventy-five  or  100  years,  deterioration  is  apt  to  set  in;  some  die, 
others  become  hollow,  and  the  result  is  a  good  stand  of  large  sycamores 
is  unusual.  The  veterans  are  generally  scattered  through  forests  of 
other  species. 

The  statement  has  often  been  made  in  recent  years  that  sycamore 
is  becoming  very  scarce  and  that  the  annual  output  is  rapidly  declining. 
Statistics  do  not  show  a  declining  output.  The  cut  of  sycamore  in  1909 
was  approximately  twice  as  great  as  in  1899.  It  is  true  that  the  supply 
is  not  very  large,  and  it  never  was  large  compared  with  some  other  hard- 
woods ;  but  it  appears  to  be  holding  its  own  as  well  as  most  forest  trees. 
The  cut  in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  45,000,000,  and  it  was  credited 
to  twenty-six  states.  Indiana  was  the  largest  contributor,  and  it  had 
held  that  position  a  long  time.  States  next  below  it  in  the  order  named 
were  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 
Doubtless  some  of  the  sycamore  lumber  now  going  to  market  has  grown 
since  old  settlers  cut  the  primeval  stands  when  they  cleared  their  fields. 
It  will  continue  to  grow,  and  since  it  usually  occupies  waste  places,  it 
may  be  depended  upon  to  contribute  pretty  regularly  year  by  year 
during  time  to  come.  It  is  one  of  the  forest  trees  which  have  never 
suffered  much  from  fires,  because  it  grows  in  danp  situations. 

The  wood  of  sycamore  weighs  35.89  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  hard, 
but  not  strong,  difficult  to  split  and  work;  the  annual  rings  are  limited  by 
narrow  bands  of  dark  summerwood.  The  rings  are  very  porous.  The 
medullary  rays  are  rather  small,  but  can  be  easily  seen  without  a  glass. 
They  run  in  regular,  radial  lines,  close  together,  and  the  pores  are  in 
rows  between.  The  rays  of  sycamore  vary  from  the  rule  with  most 
woods,  in  that  they  are  darker  than  the  body  of  the  wood. 


American  Forest  Trees  609 

One  of  the  earliest  uses  of  sycamore  was  by  farmers  who  cut  hollow 
trunks,  sawed  them  in  lengths  of  three  or  four  feet,  nailed  bottoms  in 
them,  and  used  them  for  barrels  for  grain.  They  were  called  gums. 
Solid  logs  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  were  cut  in  lengths  of  a  foot  or 
less,  bored  through  the  center,  and  used  as  wheels  for  ox  carts.  The  ox 
yoke  was  often  made  of  sycamore.  Butchers  used  sycamore  sections 
about  three  feet  high  for  meat  blocks.  The  wood  is  tough,  and  continual 
hacking  fails  to  split  it.  The  use  for  meat  blocks  continues  at  the  present 
time.     In  Illinois  1,600,000  feet  were  so  employed  in  1910. 

One  of  the  earliest  employments  of  the  wood  for  commercial  pur- 
poses was  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes  for  plug  tobacco;  but  it  has 
now  been  largely  replaced  by  cheaper  woods.  Its  freedom  from  stain 
and  odor  is  its  chief  recommendation  for  tobacco  boxes.  Some  of  it  is  in 
demand  for  cigar  boxes. 

The  modem  uses  of  sycamore  are  many.  It  is  made  into  ordinary 
crates  and  shipping  boxes  in  most  regions  where  it  grows.  Rotary  cut 
veneer  is  worked  into  berry  crates  and  baskets,  and  into  barrels.  Ice 
boxes  and  refrigerators  are  among  the  products.  Slack  coopers  are 
among  the  largest  users,  but  some  of  the  manufactiured  stave  articles 
belong  more  properly  to  woodenware,  such  as  tubs,  washing  machines, 
candy  buckets,  and  lard  pails. 

Furniture  makers  demand  the  best  grades,  and  most  of  the  quarter- 
sawed  stock  goes  to  them,  though  the  manufacturers  of  musical  instru- 
ments buy  some  of  the  finest.  Use  is  pretty  general  from  pipe  organs 
and  pianos  down  to  mandolins,  guitars  and  phonographs.  It  enters 
extensively  into  the  making  of  miscellaneous  commodities.  As  small 
a  toy  as  the  stereoscope  consumes  much  sycamore.  Makers  of  trunks 
find  it  suitable  for  slats,  and  it  serves  as  small  squares  and  borders  in 
parquetry.  It  is  a  choice  wood  for  barber  poles  and  saddle  trees,  and  its 
fine  appearance  when  worked  in  broad  panels  leads  to  its  employment 
as  interior  finish  for  houses,  boats,  and  passenger  cars. 

California  Sycamore  (Platanus  rnccmosa)  is  one  of  the  three  species  of  syca- 
more now  found  growing  naturally  in  the  United  States.  They  are  survivors  of  a 
very  old  family  and  appear  to  have  been  crowded  down  from  the  far  North  by  the 
cold,  or  to  have  made  their  way  south  for  some  other  reason.  Sycamores  flourished 
in  Greenland  in  the  Cretaceous  age,  some  millions  of  years  ago,  as  is  shown  by  fossil 
remains  dug  up  in  that  land  of  ice  and  eternal  winter.  They  grew  in  central  Europe, 
about  the  same  time,  but  long  ago  disappeared  from  there.  Sycamores  were 
growing  in  the  United  States  an  immense  period  of  time  ago,  and  were  doubtless 
lifting  their  giant  white  branches  high  above  the  banks  of  ancient  rivers  while  the 
gorgeous  bloom  of  yellow  poplars  brightened  the  forests  on  the  rich  bottom  lands 
farther  back.  Several  species  of  sycamores  which  grew  in  the  United  States  during 
the  Tertiary  age  are  now  extinct.  All  seem  to  have  been  much  hke  those  which 
have  come  down  to  the  present  day. 


610 


American  Forest  Trees 


The  California  sycamore  is  found  in  the  southern  half  of  that  state,  and  in 
Lower  California.  It  grows  from  sea  level  up  to  5,000  feet,  and  has  the  same  habits  as 
the  larger  sycamore  of  the  East,  and  prefers  the  banks  of  streams  and  the  wet  land  in 
the  bottoms  of  canyons.  It  attains  a  height  of  from  forty  to  eighty  feet,  and  a 
diameter  of  from  two  to  five.  Some  trees  are  larger,  one  in  particular  near  Los 
Angeles  having  a  trunk  diameter  of  nine  feet.  The  tree  is  usually  extremely  distorted 
and  misshaped,  leaning,  twisted,  and  forking  and  reforking  until  a  practical  lumber- 
man would  pronounce  it  a  hopeless  proposition.  This  applies,  however,  to  trunks 
which  grow  in  the  open,  and  that  is  where  most  of  them  grow.  When  they  are  found 
crowded  in  thick  stands  in  the  bottoms  of  canyons,  their  trunks  are  shapely  enough  for 
short  sawlogs.  The  wood  is  very  similar  to  that  of  eastern  sycamore,  and  it  is  used 
lor  similar  purposes,  when  used  at  all.  The  balls  are  strung  five  on  one  tough  stem, 
which  is  from  six  to  ten  inches  long.  The  eastern  sycamore  usually  has  a  stem  for 
each  ball.     The  seeding  habits  of  both  trees  are  the  same. 

Arizona  SycvmorE  (Plaianus  wrightii)  has  its  range  in  southern  New  Mexico, 
southern  Arizona,  and  neighboring  regions  in  Mexico,  where  it  grows  in  the  bottoms 
of  canyons  up  to  6,000  feet  above  sea.  The  tree  attains  a  height  of  from  thirty  to 
eighty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  two  to  five.  The  trunk  is  seldom  shapely,  but  often 
divides  in  large  branches,  some  of  which  are  fifty  or  sixty  feet  long.  There  are 
usually  three  balls  on  a  stem,  and  the  leaf  is  shaped  much  like  the  leaf  of  red  gum, 
but  there  is  considerable  variation  in  form.  The  wood  resembles  eastern  sycamore 
in  color  and  most  other  features,  but  when  quarter-sawed  the  flecks  produced  by  the 
medullary  rays  are  generally  smaller,  and  give  a  mottled  effect.  The  wood  has  not 
been  much  used,  but  apparently  it  is  not  inferior  to  eastern  sycamore. 


BLACK  CHERRY 


i 


Black  Cherry 


BLACK  CHERRY 

(Primus  Scrolina) 

THIS  widely  distributed  tree  supplies  the  cherry  wood  of  commerce. 
Its  natural  range  extends  from  Nova  Scotia  westward  through  the 
Canadian  provinces  to  the  Kaministiquia  river;  south  to  Tampa  bay  in 
Florida  and  west  to  North  Dakota,  eastern  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Okla- 
homa, and  eastern  Texas.  The  tree  is  known  as  wild  black  cherry, 
wild  cherry,  black  cherry,  rum  cherry,  whiskey  cherry,  and  choke  cherry. 

Cherry  belongs  to  a  remarkably  large  family  and  the  ordinary 
observer  would  never  suspect  the  relationship  that  exists  between  it  and 
other  growths  to  which  it  bears  little  resemblance.  It  is  in  the  rose 
family  (Rosaccce).  It  has  multitudes  of  small  and  large  cousins,  most 
of  them  small,  however.  Among  them  are  the  crabapple,  the  service- 
berry,  the  haws,  thorns,  plums,  and  the  peach,  besides  plants  which  do 
not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  trees. 

The  crown  of  black  cherry  is  narrow  and  the  branches  are  horizon- 
tal. In  height  the  tree  ranges  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  or  more  feet. 
The  bark  is  a  dark  reddish-brown,  rough  and  broken  into  plates,  becom- 
ing smoother  toward  the  top.  The  branchlets  are  a  rich  reddish-brown, 
and  are  marked  with  tiny  orange-colored  dots.  The  leaves  are  small, 
alternate,  oblong  or  oval  lanceolate,  taper-pointed  at  the  apex  and 
pointed  or  rounded  at  the  base,  finely  serrate ;  at  maturity  glabrous,  firm, 
glossy,  the  light  colored  midrib  being  very  distinct.  The  flowers  are 
white  and  grow  on  pedicels  in  long  slender  racemes,  which  terminate 
leafy  shoots.  The  fruit  is  almost  black,  showing  deep  red  coloring 
beneath  and  is  a  small  round  drupe;  vinous,  although  not  disagreeable 
to  the  taste.  In  most  instances  a  liking  for  it  must  be  acquired,  but 
comparatively  few  people  ever  take  the  trouble  to  acquire  it.  The  old 
settlers  among  the  Alleghany  mountains  had  a  way  of  pressing  the  juice 
from  the  drupes  and  by  some  simple  process  converting  it  into  "cherry 
bounce,"  a  beverage  somewhat  bitter  but  it  never  went  begging  when  the 
old-time  mountaineers  were  around.  This  was  doubtless  what  persons 
had  in  mind  who  called  it  rum  cherry.  Few  fruits,  either  wild  or  tame, 
contain  more  juice  in  proportion  to  bulk.  Ripe  fruit  is  employed  as  a 
flavor  for  alcoholic  liquors.  The  bark  contains  hydrocyanic  acid  and  is 
used  in  medicine.     The  peculiar  odor  of  cherry  bark  is  due  to  this  acid. 

In  early  years  the  ripening  of  the  cherry  crop  among  the  ranges 
of  the  Appalachian  mountains  was  a  signal  for  bears  to  congregate 
where  cherry  trees  were  thickest.  The  cubs  were  then  large  enough  to 
follow  their  mothers — in  August — and  it  was  considered  a  dangerous 


614  American  Forest  Trees 

season  in  the  cherry  woods,  because  the  old  bears  would  grow  fierce  if 
molested  while  feeding.  The  mountaineers  knew  enough  to  stay  away 
from  the  danger  points  at  that  time,  unless  they  went  there  purposely 
to  engage  in  a  bear  fight.  It  was  a  common  saying  among  those  people 
that  "cherry  bears"  should  be  let  alone. 

The  cherry's  chief  importance  in  this  country  has  been  due  to  its 
lumber.  Unfortunately,  that  value  lies  chiefly  in  the  past,  for  the  supply 
is  running  low.  It  never  was  very  great,  for,  though  the  species  has  a 
large  range,  it  is  sparingly  dispersed  through  the  forests.  In  many 
parts  of  its  range  a  person  might  travel  all  day  in  the  woods  and  see  few 
cherry  trees,  and  perhaps  none.  The  best  stands  hardly  ever  cover 
more  than  a  few  acres.  Generally  the  trees  grow  singly  or  in  clumps. 
It  appears  to  be  nearly  wholly  a  matter  of  soil  and  light,  for  the  seeds, 
which  are  carried  by  birds,  are  scattered  in  immense  numbers,  and  only 
those  grow  which  chance  to  find  conditions  just  right.  The  tree  wants 
rich  ground  and  plenty  of  room,  which  is  a  combination  not  often  found 
in  primeval  forest  regions;  but,  since  the  country  has  been  largely  cleared, 
cherry  trees  spring  up  along  fence  rows  and  in  nooks  and  corners.  If 
let  alone  they  grow  rapidly,  but  trunks  so  produced  are  of  little  value 
for  lumber,  because  too  short  and  limby.  In  the  forest  the  tree  lifts  its 
light  crown  high  on  a  slender  trunk  to  reach  the  sunshine,  and  such 
trunks  supply  the  cherry  lumber  of  commerce.  Near  the  northern 
limit  of  its  range  it  seems  to  abandon  its  demand  for  good  soil  and  is 
content  if  it  is  supplied  with  light  only.  It  betakes  itself  to  the  face  of 
cliffs,  sometimes  overhanging  the  sea,  and  so  near  it  that  the  branches 
are  drenched  in  spray  thrown  up  by  breakers.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
no  good  lumber  is  produced  under  such  circumstances. 

The  first  loss  of  cherry  occurred  when  the  farms  were  cleared.  It 
stood  on  the  best  ground,  and  the  land-hungry  Anglo-Saxon  wanted 
that  for  himself.  He  cut  the  tall  shapely  cherry  trees,  built  fences  and 
barns  of  some  of  the  logs,  and  burned  the  balance  in  the  clearing.  Then 
came  the  pioneer  lumberman  who  did  not  take  much,  because  his  old 
up-and-down  saw,  which  was  run  by  water,  would  cut  only  about  a 
thousand  feet  a  day,  and  there  was  plenty  of  other  kinds  of  timber. 
But  when  the  steam  mill  put  in  its  appearance,  cherry  went  fast.  Its 
price  was  high  enough  to  pay  for  a  long  haul.  From  that  day  till  this, 
cherry  has  gone  to  market  as  rapidly  as  millmen  could  get  to  it. 

Next  to  walnut,  it  is  the  highest  priced  lumber  produced  in  the 
United  States.  The  average  cut  per  mill,  according  to  returns  of  those 
who  sawed  it  in  1909,  was  only  11, 200  feet,  and  the  total  output  that  year 
was  only  24,594,000  feet,  contributed  by  twenty-nine  states.  The  five 
leading  producers  were,  in  the  order  named.  West  Virginia,  Pennsyl- 


American  Forest  Trees  615' 

vania,  New  York,  Ohio,  and  Indiana.  The  next  year  the  total  output 
fell  to  18,237,000  feet,  and  cherry  went  down  to  a  place  among  the 
"minor  species,"  such  as  dogwood,  alder,  locust,  and  buckeye.  The 
day  of  its  importance  in  the  lumber  industry  is  past.  It  has  become 
too  scarce  to  attract  much  attention,  but  there  will  always  be  some 
cherry  in  the  market,  though  veteran  trunks,  three  and  four  feet 
through  and  good  for  four  sixteen-foot  logs,  will  be  seldom  seen  in  the 
years  to  come. 

While  good  taste  ordinarily  dictates  that  cherry  be  finished  in  a 
tone  approximating  its  natural  color,  it  is  quite  frequent  that  it  masquer- 
ades as  mahogany.  A  well-known  and  perfect  method  of  making  cherry 
look  like  mahogany  is  to  have  the  wood  rubbed  with  diluted  nitric  acid, 
which  prepares  it  for  the  materials  to  be  subsequently  applied;  after- 
wards, to  a  filtered  mixture  of  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  dragon's  blood 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine,  is  added  one-third  that  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  soda,  the  whole  constituting  a  very  thin  liquid  which  is 
applied  to  the  wood  with  a  soft  brush.  This  process  is  repeated  at  short 
intervals  imtil  the  wood  assumes  the  external  appearance  of  mahogany. 
While  cherry  is  employed  as  an  imitation  of  mahogany,  it  is  in  its  turn 
imitated  also.  Sweet  birch  is  finished  to  look  like  cherry,  and  for  that 
reason  is  sometimes  known  as  cherry  birch. 

Cherry  weighs  36.28  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  it  is  very  porous,  but 
the  pores  are  small  and  are  diffused  through  all  parts  of  the  annual  ring. 
The  wood  has  no  figure.  Its  value  is  due  to  color  and  luster.  The 
medullary  rays  are  numercus  but  small,  and  in  quarter-sawing  they  do 
not  show  as  mirrors,  like  oak,  but  as  a  soft  luster  covering  the  whole 
surface. 

The  principal  uses  of  cherry  have  always  been  in  furniture  and 
finish,  but  it  has  many  minor  uses,  such  as  tool  handles,  boxes  for  garden 
seeds,  spirit  levels  and  other  tools,  and  implements,  patterns,  penholders, 
actions  for  organs  and  piano  players,  baseblocks  for  electrotypes  and 
other  printing  plates,  and  cores  for  high-class  panels.  Aside  from  its 
color,  its  chief  value  is  due  to  its  comparative  freedom  from  checking 
and  warping.  This  cherry  is  one  of  the  few  trees  that  cross  the  equator. 
It  extends  from  Canada  far  down  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 

Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  virginiana)  is  widely  distributed  in  North  America 
from  Canada  to  Mexico.  It  is  said  to  attain  its  largest  size  in  the  Southwest  where 
trees  are  sometimes  forty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  name  is  due  to  the 
astringency  of  the  half  ripe  fruit  which  can  scarcely  be  eaten.  When  fully  ripe  it  is  a 
little  more  tolerable,  and  is  then  black,  but  is  red  before  it  is  ripe.  The  color  of 
immature  cherries  deceives  the  unsophisticated  into  believing  they  are  ripe.  In 
Canada  the  fruit  is  made  into  pies  and  jelly,  and  it  is  said  the  tree  is  occasionally 
planted  for  its  fruit.     The  Indians  of  former  times  made  food  of  it.     The  tree  is 


616  American  Forest  Trees 

small,  and  bruised  branches  emit  a  disagreeable  odor;  leaves  contain  prussic  acid,  and 
when  partly  withered,  they  are  poisonous  to  cattle.  The  trunks  are  nearly  always 
too  small  for  commercial  purposes,  and  are  apt  to  be  affected  with  a  fungous  disease 
known  as  black  knot. 

Western  Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  demissd)  grows  from  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  the  Pacific  in  the  United  States.  It  is  often  regarded  as  the  western  form  of  choke 
cherry,  but  it  has  more  palatable  fruit,  and  trees  are  a  little  larger,  while  trunks  are 
so  crooked  that  no  user  of  wood  cares  to  have  anything  to  do  with  them.  The  wood 
is  weak,  but  is  hard  and  heavy. 

Bitter  Cherry  {Prunus  emarginala)  belongs  to  the  far  West,  and  is  found  from 
British  Columbia  to  southern  California.  In  size  it  ranges  from  a  low  shrub  to  a  tree 
a  foot  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high.  The  largest  sizes  are  found  in  western  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon.  The  wood  is  soft  and  brittle,  brown  streaked  with  green.  It  is 
not  known  that  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  put  the  wood  of  this  tree  to  any  useful 
purpose.  The  bark  and  the  leaves  are  exceedingly  bitter.  Fruit  ripens  from  June 
to  August,  depending  on  region  and  elevation,  and  it  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-half 
inch  in  diameter,  black,  and  intensely  bitter. 

HoLLYLEAF  Cherry  (Primus  ilicifolia)  is  a  CaUfomia  species  growing  in  the 
bottoms  of  canyons  from  San  Francisco  bay  to  the  Mexican  line.  It  is  rarely  more 
than  thirty  feet  high,  but  has  a  large  trunk,  sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  and  it  ought  to  be  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of 
small  articles,  but  fuel  is  the  only  use  reported  for  it.  The  fruit  is  insipid,  and  ripens 
late  in  autumn.  The  foliage  is  much  admired  and  has  led  to  the  planting  of  the 
species  for  ornamental  purposes. 


WILD  RED  CHERRY 


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Red  Cherry 

WILD  RED  CHERRY 

(Prunus  Pennsylvanica) 

IN  addition  to  the  name  wild  red  cherry  by  which  this  tree  is  known  in 
most  parts  of  its  range,  it  is  called  bird  cherry  in  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  Iowa;  red  cherry  in  Maine 
and  Rhode  Island;  fire  cherry  in  New  York  and  many  other  localities; 
pin  cherry  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and 
North  Dakota;  pigeon  cherry  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  New  York,  Ontario,  and  North  Dakota;  and  wild  cherry  in 
Tennessee  and  New  York.  Its  range  extends  from  Newfoundland  to 
Hudson  bay^  west  to  British  Columbia,  south  through  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  Colorado,  and  in  the  East  along  the  Appalachian  ranges  to 
North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  among  the 
Big  Smoky  mountains  in  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina. 

It  is  ordinarily  a  tree  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and  from  eight  to 
ten  inches  in  diameter,  though  trunks  are  sometimes  twenty  inches 
through.  It  grows  fast,  but  is  very  short-lived.  Many  stands  disappear 
in  thirty  years  or  less,  but  individuals  siu-vive  two  or  three  times  that 
long,  if  they  stand  in  open  ground.  One  of  its  names  is  fire  cherry,  and 
that  fitly  describes  it.  Like  paper  birch  and  lodgepole  pine,  it  follows 
forest  fires  where  the  ground  is  laid  bare  by  the  burning.  Nature  seems 
to  have  made  peculiar  provisions  whereby  this  tree  clothes  barren  tracts 
which  have  been  recently  biumed.  In  the  first  place,  it  a  prolific  seeder. 
Its  small,  red  cherries  are  borne  by  bushels  on  very  young  trees.  Birds 
feed  on  them  almost  exclusively  while  they  last,  and  the  seeds  are  scatter- 
ed over  the  surrounding  country.  They  have  such  thick  shells  that 
few  germinate  unless  they  pass  through  a  moderate  fire,  which  cracks  the 
shells,  or  at  least  they  do  not  sprout  until  they  come  in  direct  contact 
with  mineral  soil.  When  a  fire  bums  a  forest,  thousands  of  the  cherry 
seedlings  spring  up.  Many  persons  have  wondered  where  they  come 
from  so  quickly.  They  were  already  scattered  among  the  forest  leaves 
before  the  fire  passed.  The  heat  crazed  their  shells,  and  the  burning 
of  the  leaflitter  let  them  down  on  the  mineral  soil  where  they  germinated 
and  soon  came  up  by  thousands.  The  case  is  a  little  different  with  paper 
birch  and  with  aspen,  which  are  also  fire  trees.  Their  seeds  cannot 
pass  through  fire  without  perishing,  and  when  birches  and  aspens  follow 
a  fire  it  means  that  the  seeds  were  scattered  by  the  wind  after  the  passing 
of  the  fire.  Doubtless  cherry  seeds  are  often  scattered  after  the  fire  has 
passed ;  but  it  is  believed  that  most  of  those  which  spring  up  so  quickly 
have  passed  through  the  fire  without  being  destroyed. 


620  American  Forest  Trees 

This  small  cherry  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  damage  by  forest 
fires  is  repaired.  The  tree  is  of  little  value  for  lumber  or  even  for  fuel ; 
but  it  acts  as  a  nurse  tree — that  is,  it  shelters  and  protects  the  seedlings 
of  other  species  until  they  obtain  a  start.  By  the  time  the  cherry  trees 
die,  the  seedlings  which  they  have  nursed  are  able  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves, and  a  young  forest  of  valuable  species  is  established. 

Except  in  this  indirect  way,  the  wild  red  cherry  is  of  little  use  to 
man.  The  wood  is  soft,  light,  and  of  pleasing  color,  but  trees  are  nearly 
always  too  small  to  be  worked  into  useful  articles.  About  the  only 
industry  of  which  there  is  any  record,  which  draws  supplies  from  this 
source,  is  the  manufacture  of  pipe  stems.  The  straight,  slender,  bright- 
barked  branches  are  cut  into  requisite  lengths  and  bored  endwise,  and 
serve  for  stems  of  cheap  pipes,  and  occasionally  for  those  more  expensive. 
The  bark,  like  that  of  most  cherries,  is  marked  by  dark  bands  running 
part  way  round  the  stems.  These  are  known  as  lenticels,  and  exist  in 
the  bark  of  most  trees,  but  they  are  usually  less  conspicuous  in  others 
than  in  cherry.  It  is  this  characteristic  marking  which  gives  the  cherry 
pipe  stem  its  value. 

Wild  red  cherry  blooms  from  May  to  July,  depending  on  latitude 
and  elevation,  and  the  fruit  ripens  from  July  to  September.  The  cherries 
hang  in  bunches,  are  bright  red,  quite  sour,  and  the  seed  is  the  largest 
part.  They  are  occasionally  made  into  jelly,  wine,  and  form  the  basis 
of  certain  cough  syrups. 

West  India  Cherry  (Prunus  spluBrocarpa)  grows  near  the  shores 
of  Biscayne  bay,  Florida.  It  there  blooms  in  November  and  the  fruit 
ripens  the  next  spring.  The  tree  attains  a  height  of  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  five  or  six  inches.  When  grown  in  the 
open  at  Miami,  Florida,  it  is  larger,  and  is  much  liked  as  an  ornament. 
The  thin,  smooth  bark  is  brown,  tinged  with  red,  and  is  marked  by  large 
conspicuous  lenticels.  The  wood  is  hard  and  light,  and  of  light  clear 
red  color.  It  is  too  scarce  to  be  of  much  importance,  but  paper  knives, 
napkin  rings,  and  other  novelties  made  of  it  are  sold  in  souvenir  stores 
in  southern  Florida.     Its  range  extends  south  to  Brazil. 

WiLLOWLEAF  Cherry  {Prunus  salicifolia)  is  a  small  tree,  also 
called  Mexican  cherry,  is  more  common  south  of  the  United  States  than 
in  this  country,  ranging  as  far  south  as  Peru.  It  is  found  on  some  of  the 
mountains  of  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

Laurel  Cherry  {Prunus  caroliniana)  is  a  southern  species  which 
sticks  close  to  the  coast  in  most  of  its  range  from  South  Carolina  to 
Texas.  It  has  many  names,  among  them  wild  peach,  wild  orange,  mock 
orange,  evergreen  cherry,  mock  olive,  and  Carolina  cherry.  Leaves 
hang  two  years,  and  the  fruit  remains  nearly  one.     The  latter  is  black 


American  Forest  Trees  621 

and  about  half  an  inch  long.  The  withered  leaves  are  poisonous  if  eaten 
by  cattle.  The  tree  is  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and  eight  or  ten  inches 
in  diameter.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  color  light  brown 
to  dark,  rich  brown,  sometimes  of  much  beauty,  but  no  record  has  been 
found  of  any  use  for  it.     The  tree  is  often  planted  for  ornament. 

Wild  Plum  {Prunus  americand)  is  found  from  New  Jersey  to  Montana,  south- 
ward to  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  and  extends  to  Florida  and  Mexico.  Its  range 
covers  about  a  million  square  miles.  There  are  seven  or  more  species  of  wild  plums 
in  the  United  States.  The  fruit  of  all  of  them  is  edible.  They  have  been  planted 
accidentally  or  otherivise  in  many  localities  where  they  were  not  found  before  the 
country  was  settled.  The  plum  was  an  important  fruit  in  the  country's  early  history. 
The  pioneers  gathered  wild  fruits  before  planted  orchards  came  into  bearing,  and  the 
plum  was  one  of  the  best  which  nature  supplied.  Early  travelers  among  the  Indians 
in  the  South  frequently  spoke  of  Indian  peaches.  Such  references  have  led  some  to 
believe  that  the  peach  was  native  in  that  region,  but  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  what 
was  called  the  peach  was  really  some  species  of  wild  plum.  These  fruits  were  among 
the  earliest  to  become  domesticated.  In  fact,  they  were  abundant  about  the  sites 
of  Indian  towns  and  old  fields,  where  the  savages  had  scattered  seeds  without  any 
purpose  on  their  part  of  planting  trees;  and  early  settlers  imitated  the  Indians,  and 
plums  were  soon  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  most  of  the  cabins.  As  a  forest  tree,  it 
usually  thrived  best  on  the  banks  of  streams,  for  there  it  could  find  more  sunshine  than 
in  the  deep  woods,  and  it  bore  much  more  fruit.  The  ranges  of  several  species  of 
plums  overlapped,  and  different  sizes  and  colors  of  fruit  were  found  in  the  same 
locaUty  even  before  white  men  assisted  the  spread  of  species.  The  common  plum, 
known  to  botanists  as  Prunus  atnericana,  is  recognized  under  many  names  among 
laymen;  among  these  names  are  yellow  plum,  red  plum,  horse  plum,  hog  plum, 
August  plum,  native  plum,  and  goose  plum.  Usually  the  plum's  skin  is  red,  and  the 
flesh  yellow,  which  accounts  for  its  names,  both  red  and  yellow.  The  tree  ranges  in 
height  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  feet,  and  from  five  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  and  dark  rich-brown.  It  is  suitable  for  turnery 
and  small  novelties,  but  httle  of  it  has  been  used. 

Canada  Plum  {Prunus  nigra)  appears  to  be  the  most  northern  member  of  the 
plum  group.  It  grows  from  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  and  south  into  the  northern 
tier  of  states.  Its  range  has  been  much  extended  by  planting,  and  a  number  of 
varieties  have  appeared.  It  is  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  and  five  to  eight  inches 
in  diameter.  Flowers  appear  in  April  and  May,  and  the  fruit  is  ripe  in  September 
and  October.  The  plums  are  about  an  inch  long,  orange-red  in  color,  with  yellow 
flesh.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong.  Those  who  cultivate  this  tree  often 
do  so  for  the  beauty  of  the  flowers,  rather  than  for  the  value  of  the  fruit.  The  wood  is 
not  used  for  commercial  purposes. 

Black  Sloe  {Prunus  umbellata),  known  also  as  southern  buUace  plum,  hog 
plum,  and  wild  plum,  ranges  from  South  Carolina,  round  the  coast  through  Florida,  to 
Louisiana  and  up  the  Mississippi  valley  into  Arkansas.  The  tree  is  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  high  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  fruit  ripens  from  July  to 
September,  is  black  when  ripe,  and  often  nearly  an  inch  long.  The  people  where 
it  grows  use  it  for  jelly.     It  is  not  reported  that  the  wood  is  used  for  any  purpose. 

Western  Plum  {Prunus  subcordata)  grows  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains 
from  southern  Oregon  to  central  California.  It  is  often  a  low  bush,  but  at  its  best 
forms  a  tree  twenty  feet  high  and  six  inches  in  diameter,  but  its  wood  is  of  no  economic 


622  American  Forest  Trees 

importance.  Its  deep,  purple-red  plums  ripen  in  autumn  and  are  an  excellent  wild 
fruit,  juicy  and  tart.  During  the  fruit  season  the  plum  thickets  were  formerly 
infested  by  both  bears  and  Indians,  and  many  a  fight  for  possession  took  place,  with 
victory  sometimes  on  one  side,  sometimes  on  the  other.  The  white  inhabitants  now 
make  jam  and  jelly  of  the  fruit. 

Alleghany  Sloe  (Prunus  alkgheniensis)  is  so  named  because  it  is  best  de- 
veloped among  the  Alleghany  mountains  of  Pennsylvania.  The  tree  is  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet  high  and  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  without  value  for 
commercial  purposes,  but  the  tree's  fruit  has  some  local  importance.  It  ripens  about 
the  middle  of  August,  and  is  somewhat  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  dark, 
reddish-purple  skin,  covering  yellow  flesh. 

CmKASAW  Plum  {Prunus  angustifolia)  is  a  well-known  wild  plum  of  the  South 
from  Delaware  to  Texas,  and  north  to  Kansas.  Its  natural  range  is  not  known, 
because  it  has  been  so  widely  planted,  accidentally  or  otherwise,  near  farm  houses  and 
in  fence  corners.  Its  bright,  red  fruit  goes  only  to  local  markets.  Negroes  gather 
most  of  the  crop  in  the  South.  The  wood  is  not  considered  to  have  any  value,  but, 
in  common  with  other  plums,  it  possesses  qualities  which  fit  it  for  many  small  articles. 

Garden  Wild  Plum  (Prunus  horlulana)  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
Kentucky  from  a  cross  between  the  Chickasaw  plum  and  the  common  wild  plum 
(Prunus  americana).  It  has  spread  from  Virginia  to  Texas.  The  largest  trees  are 
thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  fruit  ripens  in  September  and  October, 
is  deep  red  or  yellow,  with  hard,  austere,  thin  flesh,  quite  sour.  The  fruit  is  called 
wild  goose  or  simply  goose  plum  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Horticulturists 
have  made  many  experiments  with  this  plum. 

Cocoa  Plum  (Chrysobalanus  icaco),  also  called  gopher  plum,  grows  in  southern 
Florida,  and  its  insipid  fruit  is  seldom  eaten  except  by  negroes  and  Seminole  Indians. 
There  is  little  sale  for  it  in  the  local  markets.  Trees  are  sometimes  thirty  feet  high 
and  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  light  brown  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  but  it  is 
seldom  used.     The  tree  grows  in  Africa  and  South  America  as  well  as  in  Florida. 


BEECH 

{Fagus  Atropunicea) 

THERE  is  only  one  beech  in  the  United  States,  and  four  or  five  in 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  southern  portion  of  South  America  has 
several  species  which  usually  pass  for  beech.  One  or  more  of  them  are 
evergreen.  Old  world  species  are  sometimes  planted  in  parks  and  ceme- 
teries in  this  country,  but  as  forest  trees  they  have  no  importance  in  the 
United  States  and  probably  never  will  have.  It  becomes  a  simple 
matter,  therefore,  to  deal  with  the  tree  in  this  country.  It  is  alone,  and 
has  no  nearer  relatives  than  the  chestnuts,  chinquapins,  and  the  oaks, 
all  of  which  are  members  of  the  same  family,  and  the  beech  gives  the 
name  to  the  family — Fagacew.  The  blue  beech,  which  is  common  in 
most  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  in  some  west,  is  not  a 
member  of  the  same  family,  though  it  looks  enough  like  beech  to  be 
closely  related  to  it. 

The  name  has  come  down  from  remote  antiquity.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  names  in  use.  It  is  said  to  have  descended  through  thousands 
of  years  from  old  Aryan  tribes  of  Asia  which  were  among  the  earliest 
to  use  a  written  language.  For  the  want  of  better  material,  they  cut  the 
letters  on  beech  bark,  and  a  piece  of  such  writing  was  called  "boc."  It 
was  but  a  step  from  that  word  to  book — a  collection  of  writings.  Both 
beech  and  book  came  from  the  same  word  "boc"  and  the  connection 
between  them  is  very  evident.  The  pronunciation  has  been  little 
changed  by  the  Germanic  races  during  thousands  of  years,  but  the 
Romans  translated  it  into  Latin  and  called  it  "liber,"  from  which  we 
have  the  word  library.  Doubtless  in  very  ancient  times,  say  5,000  years 
before  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple,  the  libraries  beyond  the 
Euphrates  river  consisted  of  several  cords  of  trimmed  and  lettered  beech 
bark.  Such  material  being  perishable,  it  has  wholly  disappeared.  The 
matter  is  not  now  directly  connected  with  the  lumber  interests,  but  it 
increases  one's  respect  for  beech  to  know  how  important  a  part  it  must 
have  played  in  the  ancient  world,  whereby  it  stamped  its  name  so 
indelibly  upon  the  language  of  the  most  intelligent  portion  of  the  human 
race. 

The  word  buckwheat  has  the  same  origin.  It  means  beech  wheat, 
so  named  because  the  grains  are  triangular  like  beech  nuts.  The  tree  is 
always  known  as  beech  in  this  country,  though  it  may  have  a  qualifying 
word  such  as  red,  white,  ridge. 

It  usually  grows  in  mixed  forests  of  hardwoods,  but  it  is  often 
fotind  in  the  immediate  presence  of  hemlock  and  spruce,  grows  from 


626  American  Forest  Trees 

Maine  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Arkansas.  Considerable  areas  are  often 
occupied  by  little  else.  This  is  attested  by  the  frequency  with  which 
such  names  as  "beech  flat,"  "beech  ridge,"  "beech  woods,"  and  "beech 
bottom"  are  encountered  in  local  geography.  Perhaps  the  finest 
examplesof  beech  growth  in  the  United  States  occur  in  thehigher  altitudes 
of  the  lower  Appalachian  range  in  eastern  Tennessee,  and  western 
North  Carolina,  where  trees  are  frequently  encountered,  showing  a  bole 
of  perfectly  symmetrical  form,  of  from  three  to  more  than  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  of  a  sheer  height  of  seventy  feet  before  a  limb  is  en- 
countered. The  wood  which  grows  in  this  section  is  nearly  as  hard  as 
that  of  the  North,  but  that  growing  on  lower  levels  in  the  South  is  of  a 
much  softer  texture  and  lighter  color,  the  heart  being  pinkish  rather  than 
reddish-brown. 

Beech  is  one  of  the  truly  beautiful  trees  of  the  forest.  In  the  eyes 
of  many,  the  beech  is  as  much  to  be  admired  as  the  American  elm  or 
sugar  maple.  Certainly  in  spring  when  it  is  covered  with  its  staminate 
blossoms,  it  is  a  splendid  sight,  and  its  perfect  leaves  are  seldom  spotted 
or  eaten  by  insects.  In  winter,  it  is  particularly  interesting.  Its 
beautiful  bark  then  appears  very  bright.  After  its  fine  leaves  have  fallen, 
though  many  of  them,  pale  and  dry,  cling  to  the  branches  throughout  the 
winter,  the  structure  of  its  massive  head  is  seen  to  advantage.  In  the 
Canadian  markets  and  those  of  many  of  the  middle  and  western  states, 
its  nuts  are  gathered  and  sold  in  considerable  quantities.  These  nuts 
are  favorite  food  of  both  the  red  and  gray  squirrel  and  these  rodents 
collect  them  in  considerable  quantities  during  the  late  fall,  and  store 
them  in  tree  hollows  for  their  winter's  supply  of  food.  It  often  happens, 
in  felling  beech  trees  in  the  winter,  that  shelled  beech  nuts  to  the 
quantity  of  a  quart  or  more  will  be  found  secreted  in  some  hollow  by 
these  provident  little  animals. 

Formerly  beech  was  little  used  for  lumber,  but  was  long  ago  given 
an  important  place  as  firewood  and  material  for  charcoal.  Its  excellent 
qualities  as  lumber  have  now  made  it  popular  in  most  markets.  The 
sapwood  is  comparatively  thin  and  the  heart  is  very  much  esteemed  for 
many  purposes.  Many  millions  of  feet  of  it  are  converted  into  flooring 
and  the  "pure  red"  product  is  very  highly  esteemed  for  ornamental 
floors.  It  has  not  as  good  working  qualities  as  maple,  but  still  it  stays 
in  place  even  better  than  does  that  famous  flooring  material.  Nearly 
all  the  large  flooring  factories  of  the  North,  whose  principal  output  is 
maple,  have  a  side  line  of  beech  flooring,  and  in  the  South,  notably  in 
Nashville,  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  wood  is  made  into  flooring. 
In  full  growth  this  beautiful  tree  is  round  topped,  with  wide  spreading 
and  horizontal  branches,  and  shows  a  normal  altitude  of  about  sixty 


American  Forest  Trees  627 

feet.  In  this  form  of  growth  branches  appear  on  the  body  very  close  to 
the  ground,  and  their  ends  often  trail  upon  it.  In  its  forest  form,  where 
trees  of  any  sort  are  of  commercial  importance,  it  often  attains  a  height  of 
ninety  or  100  feet,  with  smooth  rounded  bole  as  symmetrical  as  the  pillar 
of  a  cathedral,  with  a  diameter  of  from  two  to  four  feet.  Its  time  to 
bloom  is  April  or  May,  and  its  nuts  ripen  in  October.  The  bark  is  a 
light  bluish-gray,  and  remarkably  smooth;  the  leaves  are  simple,  alter- 
nate, with  very  short  petioles,  oblong  with  pointed  apex  and  rounded 
or  narrowed  base.  The  ribs  are  straight,  unbranching,  and  terminate  in 
remote  teeth.  The  fruit  is  a  pair  of  three-sided  nuts  with  a  sweet  and 
edible  kernel  which  grows  in  a  four-celled  prickly  burr,  splitting  when 
ripe. 

Beech  is  an  excellent  fuel  and  it  has  long  been  used  for  that  pur- 
pose. It  is  so  regularly  dispersed  over  the  country  that  most  neighbor- 
hoods were  able  to  get  it  in  the  years  when  families  cut  their  own  fire- 
wood. Later,  when  charcoal  was  burned  to  supply  primitive  iron 
furnaces,  before  coke  could  be  had,  beech  was  always  sought  for.  Still 
later,  when  large  commercial  plants  were  built  to  carry  on  destructive 
distillation  of  wood,  beech  was  still  a  favorite.  Its  modem  uses  are 
many.  There  is  scarcely  a  plant  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  hardwood  commodities,  which  does  not  use  beech. 
In  Michigan  alone  nearly  30,000,000  feet  a  year  are  demanded  by  box 
makers,  and  more  than  that  much  more  by  manufacturers  of  other 
commodities.  It  is  widely  employed  for  furniture,  filing  cabinets, 
vehicles,  interior  finish,  agricultural  implements,  woodenware,  and 
musical  instruments.  It  is  one  of  the  heaviest  and  strongest  of  the 
common  hardwoods,  and  gives  long  service  when  kept  dry,  but  does  not 
last  well  in  damp  situations. 

Beech  is  strictly  a  forest  tree.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  will  not 
grow  in  the  open,  but  when  it  does  grow  there  it  makes  poor  lumber, 
short  and  limby.  The  seedlings  must  have  shade  if  they  are  to  do  any 
good,  but  after  they  attain  a  certain  size  they  can  endure  the  light.  The 
roots  lie  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  trampling  of  cattle 
often  kills  large  trees. 

Blue  Beech  {Carpinus  caroliniana)  is  not  in  the  beech  family, 
but  the  name  by  which  it  is  commonly  known,  and  its  resemblance  to 
beech,  justify  its  consideration  with  beech.  The  bluish  color  of  the 
bark  is  responsible  for  its  common  name,  but  it  is  known  by  several 
others,  among  them  being  water  beech,  because  it  often  grows  on  or  near 
the  banks  of  streams,  and  it  seldom  seems  more  at  home  than  when  it  is 
hanging  over  the  bank  of  a  creek  where  shade  is  deep  and  moisture 
plentiful.     It  is  often  called  hornbeam  and  ironwood,  and  it  is  closely 


628  American  Forest  Trees 

related  to  hop  hornbeam  {Ostrya  -virginiana).  It  grows  from  Quebec, 
to  Florida  and  from  Dakota  to  Texas,  reaching  its  largest 
size  in  eastern  Texas  where  it  is  sometimes  sixty  feet  high 
and  two  in  diameter,  though  this  size  is  unusual.  Few  trees 
develop  a  bole  less  acceptable  to  lumbermen.  In  addition  to  being 
short,  crooked,  twisted,  and  covered  with  limbs,  it  is  nearly  always 
ribbed  and  fluted,  so  that  a  log,  even  if  but  a  few  feet  long,  is  apt  to  be 
almost  any  shape  except  round.  The  thick  sapwood  is  pale  white, 
heart  pale  brown.  The  annual  rings  are  usually  easily  seen,  but  they 
are  vague,  because  of  so  little  difference  between  the  springwood  and 
summerwood;  diffuse-porous ;  medullary  rays  thin  and  usually  seen  only 
in  the  aggregate  as  a  white  luster  where  wood  is  sawed  radially.  The 
uses  of  this  wood  are  many,  but  the  amounts  very  small.  It  is  made  into 
singletrees  and  ax  and  hammer  handles  in  Michigan,  wagon  felloes  in 
Texas  and  other  parts  of  the  Southwest;  levers  and  other  parts  of  agri- 
cultural implements  in  various  localities.  It  seldom  goes  to  sawmills, 
is  generally  marketed  in  the  form  of  bolts,  and  is  hard,  stiff,  and  strong. 


CHESTNUT 


CHESTNUT 

(Casianea  Dentata) 

FIVE  species  of  chestnut  are  known,  three  of  them  in  the  United 
States.  One  of  these,  Casianea  alnifolia,  is  a  shrub  and  has  no 
place  in  a  list  of  trees.  Chestnut  and  chinquapin  are  the  two  others. 
They  are  in  the  beech  family  to  which  oaks  belong  also.  The  ancient 
Greeks  designated  these  as  food  trees  {Fagacea),  not  an  inappropriate 
name  for  chestnut  which  probably  furnishes  more  human  food  than  any 
other  wild  tree.  Its  range  extends  from  Maine  to  Michigan  and  south- 
ward to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  attains  its  greatest  size  in 
western  North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
well-known  woods  of  the  United  States  that  does  not  bear  a  half  dozen 
or  more  local  names  in  the  various  localities  of  its  growth,  but  the  wood  is 
invariably  known  as  chestnut. 

Trees  vary  in  size  from  sixty  to  100  feet  in  height,  and  from  two  to 
four  in  diameter.  Trunks  six  feet  through  occur  where  trees  have  grown 
in  the  open,  but  such  are  not  tall,  and  are  not  valuable  for  lumber. 
Chestnut  trees  are  sometimes  heard  of  in  this  country  with  trunks  ten 
and  twelve  feet  through,  but  such  must  be  very  scarce,  because  no  one 
seems  to  know  just  where  they  are  located.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
in  rare  cases  such  sizes  have  existed.  In  France  and  Italy  trees  much 
larger  are  well  authenticated,  but  that  chestnut  is  of  a  species  different 
from  oiu-s. 

Chestnut  is  a  very  long-lived  tree  where  it  is  fortunate  enough  to 
escape  the  attacks  of  worms  and  disease ;  but  as  age  comes  on,  it  is  almost 
certain  to  be  attacked.  Insects  bore  the  wood,  and  fungus  induces 
decay.  Frequently  the  heartwood  of  large  trunks  is  all  gone,  and  the 
trees  stand  mere  shells  with  scarcely  enough  soimd  wood  left  to  support 
the  diseased  tops. 

Few  species  sprout  with  more  vigor  than  chestnut.  In  the  moun- 
tains of  eastern  Tennessee,  W.  W.  Ashe  found  that  ninety-nine  per  cent 
of  stumps  sprout.  This  applies  as  well  to  veterans  of  three  himdred 
years  as  to  young  growth.  Sprouts  which  rise  from  the  top  of  a  high 
stump  are  liable  to  meet  misfortune,  because,  under  their  disadvantage 
they  cannot  develop  adequate  root  systems;  but  sprouts  which  spring 
from  the  root  collar,  or  near  it,  may  grow  to  large  trees.  It  is  claimed 
by  some  that  a  chestnut  which  grows  from  a  sprout  has  straighter  grain 
than  one  springing  from  seed.  The  latter's  trunk  is  liable  to  develop  a 
spiral  twist,  not  only  of  the  wood,  but  also  of  the  bark ;  but  the  sprout- 
grown  tree  lacks  the  twist. 

631 


632  American  Forest  Trees 

Chestnut  blooms  in  midsummer,  and  the  profusion  of  pale  golden 
catkins  makes  the  isolated  tree  a  conspicuous  object  at  that  time. 
Bloom  is  nearly  always  abundant,  but  the  nut  crop  fails  frequently. 
Several  accidents  may  happen,  but  the  most  frequent  cause  of  scarcity 
in  the  chestnut  crop  is  a  spell  of  rainy  weather  while  the  trees  are  in 
bloom.     The  rain  hinders  proper  pollenization. 

Many  thousands  of  bushels  of  chestnuts  are  sent  to  market  yearly 
in  the  United  States.  The  nuts  are  smaller  but  sweeter  than  those  of 
European  chestnut.  The  largest  part  of  the  crop  is  collected  from  trees 
in  open  ground.  Those  in  dense  forests  bear  only  a  few  nuts  at  the  top. 
Open-grown  trees  develop  enormous  and  shapely  crowns;  and  it  is  not 
unusual  for  farmers  who  value  their  nut  bearing  trees  to  pollard  them. 
This  puts  the  tree  out  of  consideration  as  a  source  of  lumber.  Its 
branches  multiply,  but  the  trunk  remains  short.  It  is  claimed  that  a 
chestnut  orchard  of  good  form  and  in  a  region  where  large  crops  are 
frequent,  is  more  profitable  than  an  apple  orchard.  The  tree  does  not 
demand  rich  land,  but  must  have  well-drained  soil.  It  grows  on  rocky 
slopes  and  ridges,  and  will  prosper  where  most  other  valuable  trees  will 
barely  exist. 

It  grows  rapidly  in  its  early  life,  but  does  not  maintain  the  rate 
many  decades.  Large  trees  are  old.  In  the  southern  Appalachians 
the  ages  of  telegraph  poles  forty  feet  long  and  six  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
top  range  from  forty-five  to  sixty-five  years.  Trees  of  round  fence-post 
size  may  grow  in  fifteen  years.  Few  trees  will  produce  posts  more 
quickly  or  in  larger  numbers  per  acre.  In  some  instances  nearly  a 
thousand  saplings  large  enough  for  posts  stand  on  a  single  acre.  Sprout- 
growth  chestnut  often  forms  nearly  pure  stands  of  considerable  extent. 

The  value  of  this  tree  is  in  its  wood  as  well  as  its  nuts.  More 
than  500,000,000  feet  of  lumber  are  cut  from  it  yearly.  Long  before  it 
was  much  thought  of  as  a  sawmill  proposition,  it  was  manufactured  in 
large  amounts  into  rails  and  posts  by  farmers,  particularly  in  New 
England  and  in  the  Appalachian  region.  Axes,  crosscut  saws,  mauls, 
and  wedges  were  the  means  of  manufacture.  Untold  millions  of  fence 
rails  were  split  before  wire  fences  were  thought  of.  It  is  a  durable  wood, 
made  so  by  the  tannic  acid  it  contains.  As  fence  rails,  it  was  more 
durable  than  the  best  oak,  and  where  both  were  equally  convenient, 
farmers  nearly  always  chose  chestnut.  On  high  and  dry  ridges  a  chest- 
nut rail  fence  would  last  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  years,  and  in  extreme 
cases  very  much  longer,  even  a  full  century  it  is  claimed. 

Dry  chestnut  wood  weighs  28.07  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which 
makes  it  a  light  wood.  Its  annual  rings  are  as  clearly  marked  as  those 
of  any  tree  in  this  country.     The  springwood  is  filled  with  large  open 


American  Forest  Trees  633 

pores,  the  summerwood  with  bmall  ones.  The  medullary  rays  are 
minute,  and  of  no  value  in  giving  figure  to  the  wood.  Nevertheless, 
chestnut  has  strong  figure,  but  it  is  due  solely  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  spring  and  summerwood  of  the  annual  rings.  It  is  commonly  classed 
as  a  course-grained  wood.  The  finisher  can  greatly  alter  its  appearance 
by  rubbing  the  pores  full  of  coloring  matter.  The  wood  is  likewise 
susceptible  to  change  in  tone  in  the  fumes  of  ammonia,  and  by  similar 
treatment  with  other  chemicals.  The  light  colors  of  mission  furniture 
are  generally  the  result  of  treatment  of  that  kind. 

The  largest  cut  of  chestnut  lumber  comes  from  West  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Connecticut.  The  largest  use  by  any 
single  industry  is  probably  by  the  manufacturers  of  musical  instruments, 
though  the  honor  may  be  divided  with  furniture,  interior  house  finish, 
and  coffins  and  caskets.  It  is  much  employed  as  core  or  backing  on 
which  to  glue  veneers.  The  lumber  of  old,  mature  trees  is  best  liked  for 
this  purpose,  because  it  is  not  apt  to  shrink  and  swell,  and  it  holds  glue. 
It  is  no  detriment  that  it  is  riddled  with  worm  holes  the  size  of  pins. 
That  kind  of  chestnut  is  known  in  the  trade  as  "sound  wormy."  Some 
persons  claim  that  such  lumber  is  better  as  backing  for  veneer  than  sound 
pieces,  because  it  is  lighter,  is  sufficiently  strong,  and  the  small  holes 
seem  to  help  the  glue  to  stick.  Wormy  chestnut  is  frequently  not  ob- 
jected to  for  outside  work  because  the  small  holes  are  not  hard  to  fill 
and  cover  up.  The  uses  of  chestnut  are  many.  Between  6,000,000  and 
7,000,000  crossties  go  into  railroad  construction  yearly.  From  16,000 
to  20,000  tons  of  wood  are  demanded  annually  for  tanning  extract. 
Every  part  of  the  tree  is  available. 

In  recent  years  a  disease  due  to  fungus  has  attacked  chestnut 
forests  of  Pennsylvania  and  neighboring  regions.  It  has  destroyed  the 
timber  on  large  areas,  and  the  loss  threatens  to  increase.  A  tree 
usually  dies  in  one  or  two  years  after  it  is  attacked.  The  fungus  works 
beneath  the  bark  and  completely  girdles  the  tree.  The  spores  of  the 
fungus  are  believed  to  be  carried  from  tree  to  tree  on  the  feet  of  birds, 
on  the  bodies  of  insects,  and  by  the  wind. 

GouDENLEAF  Chinquapin  (Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  occurs  onthePacific  coast 
from  the  Columbia  river  to  southern  California.  It  is  of  its  largest  dimensions  in  the 
coast  valleys  of  northern  California  where  it  occasionally  attains  a  size  equal  to  the 
chestnut  tree  of  the  eastern  states,  but  in  many  other  parts  of  its  range  it  is  shrubby. 
It  is  an  evergreen,  and  its  name  is  descriptive  of  the  underside  of  the  leaf.  Late  in 
summer,  flowers  and  fruit  in  several  stages  of  growth  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time. 
'  The  nuts  are  sweet  and  edible.  In  northern  California  the  bark  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  that  of  tanbark  oak  and  sold  to  tanneries.  The  wood  is  considerably  heavier 
than  chestnut,  and  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  making  of  agricultural  implements. 
It  has  small  and  obscure  medullary  rays,  and  its  pores  are  arranged  more  like  those 


634  American  Forest  Trees 

of  live  oak  than  of  chestnut ;  that  is  they  run  in  wavy,  radial  Unes  and  not  in  concen- 
tric rings  as  in  chestnut.    The  heartvvood  is  darker  than  chestnut. 

CmNQUAPiN  (Castanea  pumila)  is  a  little  chestnut  that  grows  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Texas.  It  is  generally  a  shrub  or  a  bush  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high  east  of  the 
Alleghany  mountains,  but  in  some  of  the  southern  states  it  reaches  a  height  of  fifty 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  two  or  more,  and  is  of  largest  size  in  southern  Arkansas  and 
eastern  Texas.  It  has  no  name  but  chinquapin  which  is  an  Indian  word  supposed 
to  have  the  same  meaning  that  it  now  has.  The  nut  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-half 
as  large  as  a  chestnut,  and  is  fully  as  sweet.  It  is  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  South 
and  Southwest,  but  is  not  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Where  the  trees  are 
large  enough,  the  wood  is  put  to  the  same  uses  as  chestnut.  It  is  manufactured  into 
furniture  in  Texas,  and  is  bought  by  railroads  for  ties. 


BASSWOOD 


BASSWOOD 

{Tilia  Americana) 

THERE  are  about  twenty  species  of  basswood  in  the  world,  and  from 
three  to  six  of  them  are  in  the  United  States.  Authors  do  not 
agree  on  the  number  of  species  in  this  country.  There  are  at  least  three, 
and  they  occupy,  in  part,  the  same  range,  with  consequent  confusion. 
They  are  much  alike  in  general  appearance,  and  not  one  person  in  twenty 
knows  one  from  the  other.  The  same  names  apply  to  all,  when  they 
occur  in  the  same  region.  Few  trees  carry  more  names,  and  with  less 
reason.  Basswood  is  generally  not  difiScult  to  identify  in  summer,  but 
in  winter  a  person  only  slightly  acquainted  with  different  trees  might 
take  it  for  cucumber,  and  if  of  small  size,  it  might  possibly  be  mistaken 
for  ash  or  mountain  maple.  When  the  tree  is  bearing  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruit,  there  is  no  excuse  for  mistaking  it  for  any  other.  The  fruit, 
a  cluster  of  four  or  five  berry-like  globes,  hangs  under  a  leaf,  fixed  by  a 
short  stem  to  the  midrib.  This  feature  alone  should  be  sufficient  to 
identify  the  basswood  in  this  country. 

Among  the  many  names  by  which  this  tree  is  known,  in  addition  to 
basswood,  are  American  linden,  linn,  lynn,  limetree,  whitewood,  bee- 
tree,  black  limetree,  wickup,  whistle  wood,  and  yellow  basswood. 

The  range  is  extensive,  its  northeastern  boundary  lying  in  New 
Bnmswick,  its  southwestern  in  Texas.  It  reaches  Lake  Winnipeg,  and 
is  found  in  Georgia.  This  delimited  area  is  little  short  of  a  million  square 
miles.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from  sixty  to  120  feet,  and  a  diameter 
of  from  eighteen  inches  to  four  feet.  It  has  a  decided  preference  for 
rich  soil,  and  the  best  lumber  is  cut  in  fertile  coves  and  flats,  or  in  low 
land  near  streams.  The  largest  trees  formerly  grew  in  the  forests  of 
the  lower  Ohio  valley,  but  few  of  the  giants  of  former  times  are  to  be 
foimd  in  that  region  now.  They  went  to  market  a  generation  or  two 
ago.  The  largest  cut  of  basswood  lumber  now  is  in  Wisconsin,  Michigan, 
and  West  Virginia,  but  most  of  that  from  West  Virginia  is  white  bass- 
wood  {TUia  heterophylla). 

The  wood  weighs  28.20  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  more  than 
the  other  basswoods  in  this  coimtry  weigh.  The  rings  of  annual  growth 
are  not  very  clearly  marked.  They  may  be  distingmshed,  in  most  cases, 
by  a  narrow,  light-colored  line.  This  is  the  springwood.  In  some  trees 
it  is  much  more  distinct  than  in  others.  The  wood  is  very  porous,  but 
the  pores  are  small,  cannot  readily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  are 
scattered  pretty  evenly  through  the  yearly  ring.  The  medullary  rays 
are  small  but  numerous.     They  give  quarter-sawed  lumber  a  pleasing 

637 


638  American  Forest  Trees 

luster,  but  are  too  minute  to  develop  much  figure.  The  general  tone  of 
the  wood  is  white.  It  is  soft,  works  easily,  holds  its  shape  well,  and  is 
tough,  but  is  in  no  sense  a  competitor  of  oak  and  hickory  in  toughness, 
though  it  shows  the  quality  best  in  thin  panels  which  resist  splitting  and 
breaking. 

In  the  days  when  it  was  customary  to  ceil  houses  with  boards,  both 
overhead  and  the  walls  of  rooms,  carpenters  were  partial  to  basswood 
because  of  its  softness.  Dressing  lumber  was  then  nearly  always  done 
by  hand,  and  the  carpenter  who  pushed  the  jack  plane  ten  or  twelve 
hours  a  day,  looked  pretty  carefully  to  the  softness  of  the  wood  he 
handled.  In  tongued  and  grooved  work,  as  in  ceiling  and  wainscoting, 
it  was  not  necessary  to  dress  the  fitting  edges  as  carefully  when  basswood 
was  used  as  in  using  some  others,  because  it  is  so  soft  that  fittings  can  be 
forced,  and  cracks  may  be  closed  by  driving  the  boards  together. 

Slack  coopers  have  long  employed  basswood  for  barrel  headings, 
and  also  in  the  manufacture  of  various  kinds  of  small  stave  ware,  such 
as  pails,  tubs,  and  kegs.  In  this  use,  as  in  ceiling,  the  softness  of  the  wood 
is  a  prime  consideration,  because  the  pressure  of  the  hoops  will  close 
any  small  openings.  Its  whiteness  and  its  freedom  from  stains  and 
unpleasant  odors  are  likewise  important  when  vessels  are  to  contain 
food  products.  Box  makers  like  the  wood  on  that  account,  and  large 
quantities  are  manufactiu-ed  into  containers  for  articles  of  food. 

Much  basswood  is  cut  into  veneer,  some  of  which  serves  in  single 
sheets  as  in  making  small  baskets  and  cups  for  berries  and  small  fruits, 
but  a  large  part  of  the  output  is  devoted  to  ply  work.  Usually  three 
sheets  are  glued  together,  but  sometimes  there  are  five.  By  crossing 
the  sheets,  to  make  the  grain  of  one  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  next,  plies 
of  great  strength  and  toughness  are  produced.  Trunk  makers  are 
large  users  of  such,  and  many  panels  of  that  kind  are  employed  by 
manufacturers  of  furniture  and  musical  instruments. 

Woodenware  factories  find  basswood  one  of  their  most  serviceable 
materials,  and  it  is  made  into  ironing  boards,  wash  boards,  bread  boards, 
and  cutting  boards  for  cobblers,  saddlers,  and  glass  cutters.  Its  lightness 
and  toughness  make  it  serviceable  as  valves  and  other  parts  of  bellows 
for  blacksmiths,  organs,  and  piano  players.  Makers  of  gilt  picture 
frames  prefer  it  for  molding  which  is  to  be  overlaid  with  the  gilt  or  gold. 
It  is  serviceable  for  advertising  signs  because  its  whiteness  contrasts  well 
with  printing.  Makers  of  thermometers  use  it  frequently  for  the  wooden 
body  of  the  instrument,  and  yard  sticks  are  made  of  it.  Apiarists  find 
no  wood  more  suitable  for  the  small,  light  frames  in  which  bees  build  the 
comb. 

The  uses  of  this  wood  are  so  many  and  so  various  that  lists  would 


American  Forest  Trees  639 

prove  monotonous.  The  annual  cut  in  this  country,  exclusive  of  veneer, 
is  nearly  350,000,000  feet,  and  the  demand  for  veneer  takes  many 
millions  more. 

Basswood  is  named  for  the  bark,  and  the  spelling  was  formerly 
bastwood.  The  manufacture  of  articles  from  the  bark  was  once  a 
considerable  industry,  not  so  much  in  this  country  as  in  Europe.  How- 
ever, some  use  has  been  made  of  the  bark  here.  Louisiana  negroes  make 
horse  collars  of  it  by  braiding  many  strands  together,  and  chair  bottoms 
are  woven  of  it  in  lieu  of  cane  and  rattan,  and  it  is  likewise  woven  into 
baskets  of  coarse  kinds.  Bark  is  prepared  for  this  use  by  soaking  it  in 
water,  by  which  the  annual  layers  of  the  bark  are  separated,  long,  thin 
sheets  are  produced,  and  these  are  reduced  to  strips  of  the  desired  width. 

The  annual  cut  of  basswood  lumber  is  declining  with  no  probability 
that  it  will  ever  again  come  up  to  past  figures;  but  basswood  is  in  no 
immediate  danger  of  disappearing  from  American  forests.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  it  may  be  planted  for  commercial  purposes.  In  central 
Europe,  forests  of  basswood,  there  called  linden,  are  maintained  for  the 
honey  which  bees  gather  from  the  bloom.  In  this  country  it  is  often 
called  beetree  because  of  the  richness  of  its  flowers  in  nectar.  Possibly 
bee  owners  may  grow  forests  for  the  honey,  and  when  trees  are  mature, 
dispose  of  them  for  lumber. 

White  Basswood  (Tilia  heterophylla)  attains  a  trunk  diameter  as  great  as  that 
of  the  common  basswood,  but  is  not  as  tall.  Trees  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high  are 
among  the  tallest.  This  species  ranges  from  New  York  to  Alabama,  and  is  found  as 
far  west  as  southern  Illinois,  and  its  best  development  is  among  the  rich  valleys  and 
fertile  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  mountams  from  Pennsylvania  southward.  It  is 
the  prevailing  basswood  of  West  \'irginia,  and  reaches  its  largest  size  on  the  high 
mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  averages  about  two  pounds  lighter 
per  cubic  foot  than  the  common  basswood,  but  ordinarily  neither  the  lumber  nor 
the  standing  trees  of  the  two  species  are  distinguished.  Only  persons  somewhat 
skilled  in  botany  are  able  to  tell  one  species  of  basswood  from  another  as  they  occur 
in  the  forests  of  this  country. 

Downy  Basswood  (Tilia  pubescens)  is  a  southern  member  of  the  basswood 
group,  and  is  scarce.  Its  range  extends  from  North  Carolina  to  Arkansas  and  Texas. 
Trees  are  rarely  more  than  forty  feet  high  and  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood 
is  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  and  the  sap  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  heart. 
As  far  as  it  is  used  at  all,  its  uses  are  similar  to  those  of  other  basswoods. 

Southern  Basswood  {Tilia  australis)  is  confined,  as  far  as  is  now  known,  to  a 
small  section  of  Alabama,  where  it  attains  a  height  of  sixty  feet  in  rich  woodlands. 
No  reports  on  the  quality  of  the  wood  have  been  published,  and  the  species  is  too 
scarce  to  possess  much  interest  to  others  than  systematic  botanists. 

Florida  Basswood  {Tilia  floridana),  as  its  name  suggests,  is  a  Florida  species, 
and  has  not  been  reported  elsewhere.  It  seems  to  be  the  smallest  of  American 
basswoods,  the  largest  trees  being  little  more  than  thirty  feet  high.  No  tests  of  the 
wood  have  been  made  and  no  uses  reported. 

MiCHAUX  Basswood  {Tilia  michauxii)  has  been  Hsted  for  a  long  time,  but  is 


640  American  Forest  Trees 

still  not  well  known.  Its  range  extends  from  Canada  to  Georgia  and  westward  to 
Texas.  Trees  three  feet  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  high  have  been  reported.  Only 
botanists  distinguish  it  from  other  species  of  bassvvood  with  which  it  is  associated. 

Pawpaw  {Asimina  triloba)  is  of  more  value  for  its  fruit  than  its 
wood.  It  grows  from  New  York  to  Texas,  but  in  certain  localities  only. 
It  is  the  most  northern  species  of  the  custard  apple  family,  and  is  usually 
of  little  importance  above  an  altitude  of  1,500  feet.  In  Arkansas  and 
some  other  southwestern  regions  it  is  called  banana.  It  is  usually  a 
shrub,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  forty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  twelve 
inches.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and  weak.  Pond  apple  (Annona 
glabra),  called  custard  apple  in  some  parts  of  its  range  in  Florida,  is  a 
member  of  the  same  family.  It  attains  the  size  of  pawpaw,  and  the  wood 
is  similar. 


AMERICAN  HOLLY 


Americax    HdLLV 


AMERICAN  HOLLY 

(Ilex  Opaca) 

HOLLY  is  a  characteristic  member  of  a  large  family  scattered  through 
most  temperate  and  tropical  regions  of  the  world.  It  belongs  to 
the  family  AqiiifoiiacecE,  a  name  which  conveys  little  meaning  to  an 
English  reader  until  botanists  explain  that  it  means  trees  with  needles 
on  their  leaves,  aciis  meaning  needle,  and  folium  leaf.  How  well  holly, 
with  its  spiny  leaves,  fits  in  that  family  is  seen  at  once. 

About  175  species  of  holly  are  dispersed  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  the  largest  number  occurring  in  Brazil  and  Guiana.  Ilex  is  the 
classical  name  of  the  evergreen  oak  in  southern  Europe. 

The  glossy  green  foliage  and  the  brilliant  red  berries  of  the  holly 
tree  have  long  been  associated  in  the  popular  mind  with  the  Christmas 
season.  Mingled  with  the  white  berries  and  dull  green  foliage  of  the 
mistletoe,  it  is  the  chief  Yuletime  decoration,  and  many  hundred  trees 
are  annually  stripped  of  their  branches  to  supply  this  demand.  The 
growth  is  still  quite  abundant,  but  if  the  destruction  and  waste  continue, 
American  holly  will  soon  be  exhausted. 

Its  range  extends  from  Massachusetts  to  Texas  and  from  Missouri 
to  Florida.  In  New  England,  the  trees  are  few  and  small,  and  the  same 
holds  true  in  many  parts  of  the  Appalachian  region.  The  largest  trees 
are  found  in  southern  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas.  In  the  North  it 
grows  in  rather  dry,  gravelly  soil,  often  on  the  margins  of  oak  woods,  but 
in  the  South  it  takes  to  swamps,  and  does  best  on  river  bottoms  where 
the  soil  is  rich.  It  is  often  associated  with  evergreen  magnolia,  which  it 
resembles  at  a  distance,  though  differences  are  plain  enough  on  close 
examination.  The  light,  grayish-green  barks  of  the  two  trees  look  much 
alike ;  but  the  magnolia's  leaves  are  larger,  thicker,  and  lack  the  briers 
on  the  margins. 

Holly  varies  in  size  from  small  straggling  bushes  to  well-formed 
trees  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high  and  two  or  three  in  diameter.  The  principal 
value  of  holly  is  not  in  its  wood,  but  in  its  leaves  and  berries.  Some 
persons  suppose  that  holly  leaves  never  fall.  That  is  true  of  no  tree  that 
attains  any  considerable  age.  An  examination  of  a  holly  thicket,  or  a 
single  tree,  in  the  spring  of  the  year  will  reveal  a  fair  sprinkling  of  dead 
leaves  on  the  ground,  though  none  may  be  missed  from  the  branches. 
Those  that  fall  are  three  years  old,  and  they  come  down  in  the  spring. 
There  are  always  two  full  years  of  leaves  on  the  trees. 

Flowers  are  the  least  attractive  part  of  holly.  Few  people  ever 
notice  the  small,  unobtrusive  cymes,  scattered  along  the  base  of  the 

643 


644  American  Forest  irees 

young  shoots  in  the  early  spring,  with  the  crop  of  young  leaves.  Nothing 
showy  about  them  attracts  attention. 

The  fruit  is  the  well-known  berry,  the  glory  of  winter  decorations. 
It  is  usually  red,  but  sometimes  yellow.  The  latter  color  is  not  often 
seen  in  decorations  because  it  is  a  poor  contrast  with  the  glossy  green  of 
the  leaves.  The  berries  ripen  late  in  autumn  and  hang  until  nearly 
spring,  provided  they  are  let  alone.  That  is  seldom  their  fortune,  for  if 
they  escape  the  wreath  hunter  at  Christmas,  they  remain  subject  to 
incessant  attacks  by  buds.  Fortunately,  the  berries  are  not  very  choice 
food  for  the  feathered  bevies  that  fly  in  winter ;  otherwise,  the  trees  would 
be  stripped  in  a  day  or  two.  Birds  are  attracted  by  the  color,  and 
they  keep  pecking  away,  taking  one  or  two  berries  at  a  bait,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  long  winter  they  get  most  of  them. 

The  gathering  of  holly  leaves  and  berries  is  an  industry  of  much 
importance,  taken  as  a  whole;  but  it  lasts  only  a  short  time,  and  is 
carried  on  without  much  system.  The  greatest  source  of  supply  is 
northern  Alabama,  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  siu-rounding  states ;  but 
some  holly  is  gathered  in  all  regions  where  it  is  found.  Those  who  collect 
it  for  market  make  small  wages,  but  the  harvest  comes  at  a  season  when 
little  else  is  doing,  and  the  few  dimes  and  dollars  picked  up  are  regarded 
as  clear  gain — particularly  since  most  of  the  holly  harvesters  have  no 
land  of  their  own  and  forage  for  supplies  on  other  people's  possessions. 

The  seeds  of  holly  are  a  long  time  in  germinating,  and  those  who 
plant  them  without  knowing  this  are  apt  to  despair  too  soon.  The  great 
differences  in  the  germinating  habits  of  trees  are  remarkable.  Some 
of  the  maples  bear  seeds  which  sprout  within  a  few  days  after  they  come 
in  contact  with  damp  soil,  certain  members  of  the  black  oak  group  of 
trees  drop  their  acorns  with  sprouts  already  bursting  the  hulls,  and 
mangroves  are  in  a  still  greater  hiury,  and  let  fall  their  seeds  with  roots 
several  inches  long  ready  to  penetrate  the  mud  at  once.  But  holly  is  in 
no  hurry.  Its  seeds  lie  buried  in  soil  until  the  second  year  before  they 
send  their  radicles  into  the  soil.  They  are  so  slow  that  nurserymen 
usually  prefer  to  go  into  the  woods  and  dig  up  seedlings  which  are 
already  of  plantable  size. 

Users  of  woods  find  many  places  for  holly  but  not  in  large  amounts. 
The  reported  output  by  all  the  sawmills  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
37,000  feet,  and  Maryland  produced  more  than  any  other  state.  The 
wood  is  employed  for  inlay  work,  parquetry,  marquetry,  small  musical 
instruments,  and  keys  for  pianos  and  organs.  Engravers  find  it  suit- 
able for  various  classes  of  work,  its  whiteness  giving  the  principal  value. 
It  approaches  ivory  in  color  nearer  than  any  other  American  wood. 
Brush  back  manufactiu^ers  convert  it  into  their  choice  wares.     It  is 


American  Forest  Trees  645 

occasionally  worked  into  small  articles  of  furniture,  but  probably  never 
is  used  in  large  pieces. 

The  wood  is  rather  light,  and  the  vague  boundaries  between  the 
annual  rings,  and  the  smallness  and  inconspicuousness  of  the  medullary 
rays,  are  responsible  for  the  almost  total  absence  of  figure,  no  matter  in 
what  way  the  wood  is  worked.  The  so-called  California  holly  {Hetcrom- 
eles  arbutijolia)  is  of  a  different  family,  and  is  not  a  holly. 

Dahoon  Holly  {Ilex  cassine)  grows  in  cold  swamps  and  on  their 
borders  in  the  coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  southern  Florida, 
and  westward  to  Louisiana.  It  is  often  found  on  the  borders  of  pine 
barrens,  is  most  common  in  western  Florida  and  southern  Alabama,  and 
when  at  its  best,  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  more 
in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  nearly  twice  as  long  as  those  of  common 
holly,  and  are  generally  spineless  or  nearly  so.  The  fruit  ripens  late  in 
autumn  and  hangs  on  the  branches  until  the  following  spring.  The 
berries  are  sometimes  bright  red,  oftener  dull  red,  and  those  fully  up  to 
size  are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Some  hang  solitary,  others  in 
clusters  of  three.  The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  weighing  less  than  thirty 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  heart  is  pale  brown,  and  the  thick  sapwood 
nearly  white.  The  tree  is  known  locally  as  yaupon,  dahoon,  dahoon 
holly,  and  Henderson  wood.  This  species  passes  gradually  into  a  form 
designated  as  Ilex  myrtifolia,  which  Sargent  surmises  may  be  a  distinct 
species.  Another  form,  narrowleaf  dahoon  {Ilex  cassine  angustifolia),  is 
listed  by  Sudworth. 

Yaupon  Holly  {Ilex  vomitoria)  is  a  small,  much-branched  tree, 
often  shrubby,  and  at  its  best  is  seldom  more  than  twenty-five  feet  high 
and  six  inches  in  diameter.  Its  range  follows  the  coast  from  southern 
Virginia  to  St.  John's  river,  Florida,  and  westward  to  eastern  Texas.  It 
sticks  closely  to  tidewater  in  most  parts  of  its  habitat,  but  when  it 
reaches  the  Mississippi  valley  it  runs  north  into  Arkansas.  It  attains  its 
largest  size  in  Texas,  and  is  little  more  than  a  shrub  elsewhere.  Berries 
are  produced  in  great  abundance,  are  red  when  ripe,  but  they  usually  fall 
in  a  short  time  and  are  not  much  in  demand  for  decorations.  The  wood 
weighs  over  forty-five  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  hard,  and  nearly  white, 
but  turns  yellow  with  exposm-e.  The  leaves  of  this  holly  were  once 
gathered  by  Indians  in  the  southeastern  states  for  medicine.  The 
savages  journeyed  once  a  year  to  the  coast  where  the  holly  was  abundant, 
boiled  the  leaves  in  water,  and  produced  what  they  called  the  "black 
drink."  It  was  nauseating  in  the  extreme,  but  they  drank  copious 
draughts  of  it  during  several  days,  then  departed  for  their  homes,  confi- 
dent that  good  health  was  assured  for  another  year. 

Mountain  Holly  (Ilex  monticola)  is  so  named  because  it  grows  among  the 


646  American  Forest  Trees 

Appalachian  ranges  from  New  York  to  Alabama.  It  is  best  developed  in  the 
elevated  district  where  Tennessee  and  North  and  South  Carolina  meet  near  one 
common  boundary.  It  is  elsewhere  shrubby.  The  leaves  are  deciduous,  and  the 
bright  scarlet  berries  are  nearly  as  large  as  cherries.  They  fall  too  early  to  make 
them  acceptable  as  Christmas  decorations.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  and  creamy- 
white,  and  if  it  could  be  had  in  adequate  quantities,  would  be  valuable.  The  trees 
are  sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high,  but  they  are  not  abundant. 
Their  leaves  bear  small  resemblance  to  the  typical  holly  leaf,  but  look  more  like  those 
of  cherry  or  plum. 

Deciduou-s  Holly  {Hex  decidua)  is  called  bearberry  in  Mississippi  and  possimi 
haw  in  Florida,  while  in  other  regions  it  is  known  as  swamp  holly  because  of  its  habit 
of  clinging  to  the  banks  of  streams  and  betaking  itself  to  swamps.  It  keeps  away 
from  mountains,  though  it  is  found  in  a  shrubby  form  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
the  sea  in  the  Atlantic  states,  from  Virginia  southward.  It  runs  west  through  the 
Gulf  region  to  Texas,  and  ascends  the  Jlississippi  valley  to  Illinois  and  Missouri, 
attaining  tree  size  only  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  wood  is  as  heavy  as  white  oak, 
hard,  and  creamy-white,  both  heart  and  sap.  Doubtless  small  quantities  are  em- 
ployed in  different  industries,  but  the  only  direct  report  of  its  use  comes  from  Texas 
where  it  is  turned  for  drawer  and  door  knobs  in  furniture  factories.  Most  but  not  all 
of  the  leaves  fall  in  early  winter.  The  berries  obey  the  same  rule,  some  fall  and  others 
hang  till  spring.     They  are  orange  or  orange-scarlet. 


YELLOW  BUCKEYE 


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Yki-low  Buckeye 

YELLOW  BUCKEYE 

(.Esculns  Octandra) 

FOUR  species  and  one  variety  of  buckeye  are  native  in  the  United 
States,  yellow  buckeye,  Ohio  buckeye,  California  buckeye,  small 
buckeye,  and  purple  buckeye.  They  belong  in  the  horse  chestnut  family. 
The  so-called  Texas  buckeye  is  in  a  different  family,  and  is  not  a  true 
buckeye,  but  is  close  kin  to  the  soapberry.  The  buckeyes  axe  named 
for  the  large  white  spot  on  the  smooth,  brown  nut,  resembling  the  eye  of 
a  deer.  The  yellow  buckeye  is  the  most  important  of  the  group,  is  the 
largest  and  most  abundant.  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  buckeye  in 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Kentucky.  It  is  called  sweet  buckeye  in  West  Virginia,  Mississippi, 
Texas,  Missouri,  and  Indiana,  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  does  not 
exhale  the  disagreeable  odor  characteristic  of  other  members  of  the 
family.  Yellow  buckeye  is  the  term  applied  to  it  in  South  Carolina  and 
Alabama;  large  buckeye  in  Tennessee;  big  buckeye  in  Tennessee  and 
Texas.  It  flourishes  from  Allegheny  county,  Pennsylvania,  southward 
along  the  Alleghany  mountains  to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama, 
westward  along  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  river  to  southern  Iowa,  through 
Oklahoma  and  the  valley  of  the  Brazos  river  in  eastern  Texas.  It 
thrives  best  along  streams  and  in  dense,  rich  woods.  It  reaches  its 
fullest  development  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alleghany  mountains  in  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

The  leaves  of  the  buckeye  are  compound,  with  from  five  to  seven 
leaflets;  flowers  appear  in  May  or  June  and  are  dull  yellow;  the  fruit 
is  a  large  brown  nut,  one  or  two  of  which  are  enclosed  in  a  rough,  uneven 
husk,  about  two  inches  or  more  in  diameter.  The  tree  grows  from  forty 
to  100  feet  in  height,  and  attains  a  diameter  of  from  one  to  three  and  a 
half  fe'et. 

Buckeye  grows  intermingled  with  poplar,  oak,  maple,  beech  and  a 
variety  of  other  hardwoods.  From  its  comparatively  limited  growth 
as  compared  with  the  totality  of  the  average  hardwood  forest,  it  never 
has  been  recognized,  and  probably  never  will  be,  as  a  distinctive  type 
of  American  commercial  wood.  The  timber  is  felled  with  the  other 
valuable  trees  surrounding  it,  and  its  appearance,  when  manufactiu-ed 
into  lumber  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  sap  of  poplar  or  whitewood  that 
almost  without  exception  it  is  assorted  with  poplar  saps,  and  goes  on  the 
market  masquerading  as  that  wood.  There  is  probably  not  one  lumber- 
man in  a  thousand,  handling  poplar,  that  is  able  to  distinguish  buckeye 
from  sap  poplar  in  his  shipments  of  that  wood. 


650  Ajierican  Forest  Trees 

Sawmills  make  no  distinction  between  the  different  species.  All 
that  comes  is  buckeye,  but  nearly  all  of  it  is  the  yellow  species,  though 
doubtless  a  little  of  all  the  others  is  cut  into  lumber  and  veneer,  or  goes 
to  the  slack  cooperage  shop,  or  to  the  pulp  mill.  The  woods  of  all  are 
quite  similar,  and  they  are  used  for  the  same  purposes.  If  one  is  em- 
ployed in  larger  quantities  than  another,  it  is  because  it  is  more  con- 
venient, or  of  better  form  or  larger  size. 

Early  uses  of  buckeye  were  as  important  as  those  of  the  present 
day,  though  amounts  were  smaller.  Many  an  Ohio  statesman  of  former 
times  boasted  that,  as  a  baby,  he  was  rocked  in  a  buckeye  sugar  trough 
for  a  cradle.  They  claimed  with  pride  that  the  prevalance  of  the  custom 
caused  Ohio  to  be  known  as  the  buckeye  state,  a  name  which  clings  to  it 
still.  Next  to  yellow  poplar,  buckeye  was  considered  the  best  wood  from 
which  to  hew  the  small  troughs  which  collected  the  sugar  water  from  the 
tapped  maples  in  early  spring;  but  the  range  of  buckeye  did  not  extend 
northward  into  the  real  maple  area,  and  the  troughs  like  those  which 
rocked  the  inchoate  Ohio  statesmen  were  unknown  in  the  North,  but 
were  familiar  along  the  mountain  ranges  southward.  Dough  trays, 
bread  boards,  chopping  bowls,  and  troughs  in  which  to  salt  bacon  and 
pork,  were  hewed  from  buckeye  by  farmers  and  village  woodworkers. 

It  weighs  27.24  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  is  diffuse-porous,  and  the 
slight  difference  between  the  wood  grown  in  spring  and  that  of  late 
summer  renders  the  annual  rings  indistinct.  It  has  little  figure,  no 
matter  how  it  is  sawed ;  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  obscure.  Softness 
is  one  of  the  principal  qualities,  and  it  is  also  weak,  and  is  wanting  in 
rigidity.  These  are  its  faults,  but  it  has  virtues.  It  is  tasteless  and 
odorless,  and  these  properties  make  it  valuable  in  the  manufactiu-e  of 
boxes  in  which  food  products  are  shipped.  The  reported  cut  of  buckeye 
in  the  United  States  is  from  11,000,000  to  13,000,000  feet  a  year.  The 
reports  of  factories  which  use  the  wood  in  making  commodities  throw 
light  on  the  question  of  actual  use.  North  Carolina  works  10,000  feet 
a  year  into  cabinets  and  office  fixtures;  Michigan  100,000  into  candy 
and  chocolate  boxes,  dishes,  and  bowls;  Maryland  uses  200,000  feet 
yearly  for  practically  the  same  purposes,  but  with  the  added  commodities 
of  spice  drawers  and  tea  chests.  Makers  of  artificial  limbs  consider 
buckeye  one  of  their  best  materials,  but  it  is  second  to  willow.  The 
"cork  legs"  are  usually  either  buckeye  or  willow.  Pulp  mills  grind  the 
wood  for  paper,  but  it  is  not  separately  listed  in  pulp  statistics,  and  the 
total  cut  cannot  be  stated.  It  is  converted  into  veneer  and  finds  many 
places  of  usefulness,  but  here,  also,  no  separate  figures  are  to  be  had. 

The  nuts  are  large  and  abundant,  but  almost  wholly  useless  for 
man  or  beast.     Bookbinders  make  paste  of  them,  as  a  substitute  for 


American  Forest  Trees  651 

flour,  and  with  satisfactory  results.  The  paste  resists  ferments  much 
better  than  that  manufactured  from  fiour;  but  the  demand  upon  the  nut 
supply  for  that  purpose  is  very  small.  Squhrels  and  other  small 
animals  leave  buckeyes  alone.  Some  writers,  whose  acquaintance  with 
this  tree  was  apparently  acquired  at  long  range,  state  that  the  nuts  are 
food  for  cattle.  No  person  with  knowledge  of  the  buckeye  says  that. 
Cattle  occasionally  eat  a  few,  but  are  poisoned  thereby,  and  if  they 
recover,  they  never  again  have  anything  to  do  with  buckeyes. 

This  tree  is  ornamental  during  a  few  months  of  the  year.  Its 
flowers  are  attractive,  and  its  large,  vigorous  leaves  and  conspicuous 
fruit  are  admired  in  summer;  but  early  in  the  fall  the  leaves  come  down, 
the  husks  burst  from  the  nuts  and  strew  the  ground  with  unsightly 
fragments.  The  tree  is  seldom  planted,  but  the  horse  chestnut,  a  foreign 
species,  takes  its  place. 

Ohio  Buckeye  {.Esculus  glabra)  was  once  thought  to  be  more 
abundant  in  Ohio  than  elsewhere,  hence  the  name;  but  its  best  develop- 
ment is  in  Tennessee  and  northern  Alabama.  The  disagreeable  odor 
emitted  by  the  bark  gives  it  the  names  fetid  and  stinking  buckeye,  and 
it  is  known  also  as  American  horse  chestnut.  Its  range  is  approximately 
the  same  as  that  of  yellow  buckeye,  but  it  is  a  smaller  tree,  rarely  more 
than  thirty  feet  high,  though  it  is  seventy  in  exceptional  cases.  In 
common  with  other  trees  of  the  species,  it  prefers  rich  soil  along  water 
courses.  The  wood  was  formerly  in  demand  for  chip  hats,  but  that  use 
has  apparently  ceased.  The  sapwood  is  darker  than  the  heart  which 
is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  Dark  streaks,  probably  stains  due  to 
fungus,  occasionally  run  through  the  trunk.  In  weight,  strength,  and 
stiffness  the  wood  is  approximately  the  same  as  yellow  buckeye.  Its 
odor  is  sufiicient  to  distinguish  it  from  that  species,  and  it  associates  with 
no  other  except  on  rare  occasions  when  it  may  be  found  with  the  small 
buckeye  in  western  Tennessee  and  southern  Missouri. 

California  Buckeye  {.Esculns  californica)  occurs  only  in  the  state 
whose  name  it  bears.  It  is  a  short,  much-branched,  ill-formed  tree; 
root  large  and  shaped  somewhat  like  an  inverted  tub,  often  standing  a 
foot  or  more  above  the  ground,  and  the  branches  rising  from  it.  A  tree 
so  formed  is  without  value  to  the  general  lumberman,  but  cabinet 
makers  sometimes  grub  out  the  root  and  saw  it  transversely  into  thin 
lumber  or  veneer  and  make  small  articles  which  possess  considerable 
figure,  due  to  the  involved  growth,  but  little  variety  of  color.  Its  tone 
is  light  yellow.  The  tree  is  found  in  the  central  part  of  California,  from 
near  sea  level  up  to  4,500  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  It  gets  away  from  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  water  courses  and  grows  on  hillsides.  It  is  heavier 
than  any  other  American  buckeye,  and  has  very  thin  sapwood.     The 


652  American  Forest  Trees 

other  properties  of  the  wood,  and  the  botanical  characters  of  the  tree 
are  common  to  other  members  of  the  species.  The  seeds  depend  for 
their  dispersal  on  running  water,  when  the  tree  grows  by  a  stream,  or  on 
gravity,  if  situated  on  a  hillside.  The  seed  will  not  grow  unless  buried  in 
moist  soil,  and  it  retains  its  vitality  only  a  few  months.  Few  trees  in  the 
United  States  have  larger  seeds  than  buckeyes.  The  tree  is  short-lived, 
reaching  maturity  in  most  cases  in  less  than  a  hundred  years.  It  is 
sometimes  planted  for  ornament  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

Small  Buckeye  {.Esculus  austrina)  is  one  of  the  latest  recognized 
members  of  the  buckeye  household.  It  seldom  attains  a  diameter  above 
five  or  six  inches,  or  a  height  of  twenty-five  feet.  It  is,  therefore,  too 
small  to  be  seriously  considered  as  a  source  of  lumber,  and  even  if  trunks 
were  large  enough,  the  species  is  too  scarce  to  furnish  many  logs.  It 
grows  on  rich  uplands  from  western  Tennessee  and  southern  Missouri  to 
Texas.     The  bright  red  flowers  open  in  April,  the  fruit  falls  in  October. 

Purple  Buckeye  (.Esculus  octandra  hybrida)  is  a  variety  charac- 
terized by  red  or  purple  flowers  and  by  leaves  woolly  on  the  under  sides, 
and  bark  of  lighter  color  than  that  of  yellow  buckeye.  The  range 
follows  the  Appalachian  mountains  from  West  Virginia  southward.  It 
has  been  reported  in  Texas  also.  If  the  wood  is  used  at  all,  it  goes  for 
the  same  purposes  as  yellow  buckeye. 


SASSAFRAS 


SASSAFRAS 

(Sassafras  Sassafras) 

THE  French  settlers  in  Florida  were  the  first  white  men  to  give  the 
name  sassafras  to  this  tree,  but  the  Indians  called  it  by  that  name 
long  before.  It  was  a  tree  which  Indians  were  sure  to  name,  because  it 
had  an  individuality  which  appealed  to  them.  It  is  not  known  what 
the  real  meaning  of  the  word  was,  when  the  southern  Indians  used  it. 
After  the  French  adopted  the  name  in  Florida,  it  passed  to  other  colonies 
and  other  languages,  and  has  led  to  numerous  disputes  since.  Many 
have  erroneously  supposed  that  the  name  is  of  Latin  origin.  When  the 
English  colony  was  founded  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1607,  the  tree 
was  well  known  by  that  name,  but  it  was  pronounced  so  variously  and 
spelled  in  so  many  ways  that  it  was  often  almost  unrecognizable.  It  is 
pronounced  variously  and  spelled  differently  yet.  It  is  called  sassafras 
in  most  regions,  and  in  others  is  saxifrax,  sassafas,  sassafac,  sassafrac, 
and  saxifrax  tree. 

Its  range  covers  the  territory  from  Massachusetts  to  Iowa  and 
Kansas,  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Some  of  that  range  it  has 
occupied  for  vast  periods  of  time,  for  sassafras  leaves  have  been  found 
embedded  in  the  Cretaceous  formations  of  Long  Island.  Near  the 
northern  limit  of  its  range  it  is  generally  small,  often  of  brush  size;  but 
ftrrther  south  it  becomes  a  tree  which  sometimes  exceeds  100  feet  in 
height,  and  three  or  foiu:  in  diameter.  The  best  development  of  the 
species  is  in  Arkansas  and  Missovun. 

Sassafras  belongs  to  the  latrrel  family.  Strangely  enough,  the  two 
trees  which  are  usually  supposed  to  be  typical  laurels — namely,  moun- 
tain laurel  {Kalmia  laiifolia)  and  great  rhododendron,  do  not  belong 
to  the  lam-el  family,  but  the  heath  family.  The  laurel  family  to  which 
sassafras  belongs  includes  many  species  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  some 
are  evergreen,  others  are  not,  but  all  characterized  by  the  strong, 
pungent  odor  of  their  wood  or  bark,  and  all  having  fruit  with  a  single 
seed  like  a  plum  or  cherry.  The  camphor  tree  from  the  distillation  of 
whose  wood  commercial  camphor  (except  synthetic  camphor  made 
largely  from  turpentine)  is  derived,  belongs  to  this  family,  as  do  certain 
bay  trees  of  the  southern  states.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that 
sassafras  existed  only  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States;  but  a 
species  closely  resembling  ours,  if  not  identical  with  it,  has  recently 
been  found  in  China.  The  California  laiu-el  {Umbellularia  calif ornica) 
is  in  the  same  family  with  sassafras. 

This  tree  has  had  a  peculiar  history.     It  was  once  supposed  to 

655 


656  American  Forest  Trees 

possess  miraculous  healing  powers,  and  was  shipped  from  Virginia  to 
England  in  one  of  the  first  cargoes  to  go  to  that  country  from  the  present 
territory  of  the  United  States.  Its  supposed  value  did  not  consist  in  its 
use  as  lumber,  but  in  some  medicinal  property  which  it  was  reputed  to 
possess.  People  appeared  to  believe  that  it  would  renew  the  youth  of 
the  human  race.  Some  portion  of  this  superstition  has  clung  round 
sassafras  to  this  day,  and  it  is  not  entirely  confined  to  ignorant  people. 
Bedsteads  made  of  sassafras  were  supposed  to  drive  away  certain  nightly 
visitors  which  disturb  slumber.  In  southeastern  Arkansas  and  north- 
western Mississippi,  bedsteads  are  still  made  of  this  wood,  with  the 
belief  that  sleep  will  be  sounder.  The  same  custom  doubtless  prevails 
elsewhere.  In  northern  Louisiana  floors  of  sassafras  are  occasionally 
laid  in  negro  cabins  because  of  the  same  superstition,  and  in  the  firm 
belief  that  it  will  keep  out  animals  as  large  as  rats  and  mice.  Some  of 
the  mountaineers  of  Kentucky,  where  each  family  makes  its  own  soap, 
insist  that  the  kettle  must  be  stirred  with  a  sassafras  stick  or  it  will 
produce  a  poor  quality  of  soap.  Among  the  mountains  of  West  Vir- 
ginia many  a  farmer  equips  his  henhouse  with  sassafras  poles  for  roosts, 
fully  convinced  that  he  has  put  an  effective  quietus  on  all  tribes,  shoals, 
and  kindred  of  menopon  pallidum,  and  the  hens  will  sleep  better. 

The  production  of  sassafras  oil  is  perhaps  the  largest  industry 
dependent  upon  this  tree.  Roots  are  grubbed  by  the  ton  and  are  sub- 
jected to  destructive  distillation.  Much  of  this  work  is  carried  on  in 
Virginia  where  sassafras  spreads  quickly  into  abandoned  fields,  springing 
up  from  seeds  carried  by  birds.  Veritable  thickets  soon  take  possession. 
Here  is  where  the  sassafras  oil  supply  comes  from.  Contractors  often 
clear  the  old  fields  and  make  them  ready  for  tillage,  taking  the  roots 
for  pay. 

The  wood  weighs  31.42  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  is  very  durable 
when  exposed  to  dampness;  is  slightly  aromatic;  inclined  to  check  in 
drying;  the  layers  of  annual  growth  are  marked  by  rings  of  large  pores; 
summerwood  is  quite  distinct  from  the  earlier  growth;  medullary  rays 
are  many  and  thin;  color  dull  orange-brown,  the  thin  sapwood  light 
yellow. 

Sassafras  goes  to  sawmills  in  all  regions  where  it  is  large  enough  for 
lumber,  but  the  total  cut  is  small.  Reports  from  sawmills  in  1909 
credited  this  species  with  only  25,000  feet  in  the  United  States,  and  it  was 
still  less  in  1910.  It  is  evident  that  this  is  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
total  output,  and  probably  Tennessee  alone  produces  that  much.  The 
wood  is  sold  with  other  species  and  losses  its  name,  frequently  passing 
as  ash.  The  wood  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  ash,  in  grain  and 
color,  but  is  lighter  in  weight,  and  much  lower  in  strength. 


American  Forest  Trees  657 

Sassafras  was  one  of  the  canoe  woods  of  early  times  along  the  lower 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  Its  two  principal  advantages  over  most 
woods  with  which  it  was  associated  was  its  light  weight  and  lasting 
qualities.  Canoes  of  this  timber  in  Louisiana  have  given  continued 
service  for  a  third  of  a  century. 

In  all  parts  of  its  range,  wherever  it  is  of  suiScient  size,  it  has  been 
used  for  posts.  It  is  generally  considered  good  for  about  twenty  years. 
Large  trunks  were  formerly  split  for  rails,  and  a  few  are  utilized  in  that 
way  still,  but  most  timber  large  enough  for  rails,  now  goes  to  sawmills. 
In  Texas  most  of  the  sassafras  supplied  by  sawmills  is  manufactured  into 
iumituie,  but  is  listed  as  ash.  The  same  thing  is  done  in  Arkansas  and 
Missom-i,  but  the  use  in  the  latter  state  is  extended  to  interior  house 
finish  and  of&ce  and  bank  fixtiures.  Sometimes  it  is  made  the  outside 
wood,  and  the  figure  caused  by  sawing  the  logs  tangentially  is  ac- 
centuated by  stains  and  fillers.  The  &guie  of  quarter-sawed  wood  is  not 
attractive  because  the  medullary  rays  are  too  small.  It  lasts  well  as 
railroad  ties  and  a  few  are  found  in  service  in  many  parts  of  the  tree's 
range,  but  those  who  see  it  in  the  track  are  liable  to  mistake  it  for  chest- 
nut. 

A  by-product  of  sassafras  deserves  mention — tea  made  from  the 
flowers  or  from  the  bark  of  the  roots.  It  is  relished  in  the  early  spring, 
and  is  popular  in  most  regions  where  the  tree  is  known.  The  bark 
is  a  commercial  commodity.  It  is  tied  in  small  bundles,  and  the  price 
at  retail  ranges  from  a  nickel  to  a  dime  each.  Drug  stores  and  grocers 
sell  it.  In  the  city  of  Washington  in  early  spring  sassafras  peddlers 
canvas  the  city  from  center  to  circumference.  They  are  generally 
negro  men  and  women  who  dig  the  roots  on  the  neighboring  hills  of 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  strip  the  bark,  tie  it  in  small  bundles,  and  by 
diligence  and  perseverance,  succeed  in  converting  the  merchandise  into 
money. 

Sassafras  is  often  cited  as  an  example  of  a  tree  with  leaves  of  difi'er- 
ent  forms.  Three  shapes  are  coromon,  and  all  frequently  occiu"  on  the 
same  tree,  and  even  on  the  same  twig.  One  has  no  lobes,  another  has 
one  lobe  like  the  thumb  of  a  mitten,  and  another  has  three. 

Lancewood  (Ocotea  cateshyana)  is  a  small  evergreen  tree,  looks 
much  like  laurel,  and  grows  in  southern  Florida,  on  the  islands  and  on  the 
mainland  in  the  vicinity  of  Biscayne  bay.  It  is  closely  related  to  sassa- 
fras, and  the  bark  has  an  aromatic  odor.  It  belongs  to  a  group  of  trees 
with  nearly  200  species  scattered  in  hot  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 
This  is  the  only  one  belonging  to  the  United  States,  and  it  appears  to  be 
a  newcomer  on  these  shores,  from  the  fact  that  it  has  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining so  limited  a  foothold.    It  keeps  well  south  of  the  region  where  it 


658 


American  Forest  Trees 


is  likely  to  be  frosted  and  it  seldom  exceeds  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  eighteen  inches.  The  fruit  ripens  in  autumn  and  is  dark 
blue  with  flesh  thin  and  dry.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  checks 
badly  in  drying,  and  has  a  rich  brown  color,  the  sapwood  being  yellow. 
Rings  of  annual  growth  are  marked  with  many  small,  regularly-dis- 
tributed open  ducts;  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  numerous;  wood  weighs 
47.94  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  beautifully 
colored,  and  is  highly  prized  for  small  cabinet  work  and  novelties.  At 
Miami,  Florida,  small  trunks  cut  on  neighboring  hummocks,  or  brought 
from  the  keys,  are  worked  into  souvenirs  to  be  sold  to  visitors.  Lance- 
wood  fishing  rods  are  among  the  strongest  and  most  expensive  on  the 
market;  but  little  of  the  material  of  which  they  are  made  grows  in 
Florida.     It  is  also  manufactured  into  billiard  cues  and  small  handles. 


MADRONA 

{Arbuitts  Menziesii) 

MADRONA  is  an  interesting  tree  which  ranges  from  British  Colum- 
bia southward  to  central  California,  attaining  its  greatest  develop- 
ment in  the  redwood  forests  of  northern  California,  where  trees  are 
sometimes  one  hundred  feet  high  and  six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter.  It  is 
not  only  an  interesting  tree  itself,  but  it  has  many  interesting  relatives, 
some  of  which  are  trees,  others  shrubs,  and  still  others  only  small  plants 
or  vines.  It  may  be  called  a  second  cousin  to  the  common  huckleberry, 
the  motmtain  lamel,  trailing  arbutus,  the  azaleas,  the  tiny  wintergreen, 
and  the  great  rhododendron.  It  has  some  poor  relations,  but  many 
that  are  highly  respectable.  It  belongs  to  the  heath  family,  of  which 
there  are  seventy  genera,  and  more  than  a  thousand  species;  but  less 
than  half  of  them  are  in  America,  the  others  being  scattered  widely  over 
the  world. 

The  madrona,  when  at  its  best,  is  one  of  the  largest  members  of  the 
family;  but  it  is  not  always  at  its  best.  It  sometimes  degenerates  into 
a  sprawling  shrub,  where  it  grows  on  poor  ground  and  on  cold,  dry 
mountain  tops.  It  is  manifestly  not  fair  to  study  any  tree  at  its  worst, 
and  it  is  particularly  not  fair  to  the  madrona,  which  varies  so  greatly  in 
its  appearance.  At  one  place  it  may  be  scarcely  large  enough  to  shade 
the  lair  of  a  jackrabbit,  and  at  another  it  spreads  its  branches  wide 
enough  to  shade  an  army — a  small  army,  however,  say,  about  two 
thousand  men.  A  tree  of  that  size  may  be  found  within  a  few  hours'  ride 
of  San  Francisco.  Its  branches  cover  an  area  of  from  eight  thousand 
to  ten  thousand  square  feet. 

When  madrona  grows  in  the  open  it  throws  out  wide  limbs  like  a 
southern  live  oak,  though  not  so  large  or  long.  Its  crown  is  rovmded 
and  graceful;  but  when  it  grows  in  forests,  where  other  trees  crowd  it, 
the  trunk  rises  straight  up  to  lift  the  crown  into  the  sunlight  and  fresh 
air.  The  madrona  is  seen  in  all  its  glory  in  northwestern  California, 
where  it  catches  some  of  the  warmth  and  the  moist  air  from  the  Pacific. 
It  follows  the  ranges  of  the  Siskiyou  mountains  eastward  near  the 
boundary  of  California  and  Oregon.  It  is  usually  mixed  with  other 
forest  trees,  but  sometimes  large  stands  nearly  pure  are  encountered, 
and  there  the  long  trunks,  rather  gray  near  the  ground,  but  wine- 
colored  above,  rise  in  imposing  beauty  and  are  lost  in  the  evergreen 
crowns. 

The  leaves  suggest  those  of  laurel,  but  are  broader.  The  large 
dusters  of  white  flowers  are  among  the  glories  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


o62  American  Forest  Trees 

George  B.  Sudworth,  dendrologist  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service, 
who  usually  describes  in  strictly  prosaic  terms,  breaks  away  from  that 
habit  long  enough  to  compare  madrona  flowers  to  lilies  of  the  valley, 
in  his  "Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope."  The  flowers  appear  from 
March  to  May,  depending  on  latitude  and  elevation. 

The  brilliant  orange-red  fruit  ripens  in  the  fall,  and  is  often  borne 
in  great  abundance.  It  renders  the  crowns  of  the  trees  very  beautiful. 
The  fruit  is  about  half  an  inch  long  and  contains  many  small  angular 
seeds.  The  fruit  is  said  to  contain  a  substance  which  puts  to  sleep  wild 
creatures  that  feed  on  it.  The  claim  is  probably  mythical,  for  birds 
breakfast  extravagantly  on  it  in  the  morning,  and  apparently  do  not  do 
any  sleeping  until  after  sunset. 

This  tree  was  discovered  by  and  named  for  Archibald  Menzies,  a 
Scotch  botanist  who  traveled  in  the  Northwest  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago.  It  has  several  local  names,  among  them  being  madrove, 
laurel  wood,  madrone-tree,  laurel,  and  manzanita.  The  last  is  the 
proper  name  of  another  small  tree  which  is  associated  with  madrona  and 
is  closely  related  to  it. 

The  wood  weighs  43.95  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  a  little  below 
eastern  white  oak  in  fuel  value,  a  little  above  it  in  strength,  and  some- 
what under  it  in  stiffness.  The  color  is  pale  reddish-brown,  resembling 
applewood  in  tone,  but  generally  not  quite  so  dark.  The  wood  is  porous, 
but  the  pores  are  very  small.  Medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  thin. 
On  account  of  the  rays  being  of  a  little  deeper  red  than  the  other  wood, 
quarter-sawed  stock  is  handsome  and  of  somewhat  peculiar  appear- 
ance. The  figure  is  much  like  quarter-sawed  beech,  but  of  deeper, 
more  handsome  color.  The  contrast  between  springwood  and  sum- 
merwood  is  not  strong,  though  easily  seen.  Generally,  the  summer- 
wood  constitutes  about  one-fourth  of  the  annual  ring.  The  tree  grows 
slowly,  but  with  much  uregularity.  The  increase  in  one  season  may 
be  foiur  or  five  times  as  great  as  in  another.  The  bark  exfoliates,  and 
is  quite  thin. 

Madrona  has  never  been  put  to  much  use.  Difficulties  in  seasoning 
it  have  stood  in  the  way.  The  wood  warps  and  checks.  Similar 
difficulties  with  other  woods  have  been  overcome,  and  such  troubles 
should  not  be  unduly  discouraging.  The  beauty  of  the  wood  is  unques- 
tioned. It  presents  a  fine  appearance  when  worked  into  furniture, 
particularly  in  small  panels  and  turned  work,  like  spindles,  knobs,  and 
small  posts.  When  made  into  grills  it  shows  a  surprising  richness  of 
tone.  The  wood  polishes  almost  to  the  smoothness  of  holly.  Small 
quantities  are  made  into  flooring;  a  little  goes  to  the  furniture  makers; 
lathes  turn  some  of  it  for  novelties  and  souvenirs:  fuel  cutters  sell  it  as 


American  Forest  Trees  663 

cordwood;  and  tanbark  peelers  cut  the  trees  for  the  thin,  papery  bark. 
In  that  case  the  trunks  are  left  to  decay,  unless  they  happen  to  be  con- 
venient to  a  cordwood  market. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  uses  for  the  wood  of  madrona  is  for 
charcoal  burning.  Blacksmiths  buy  it  because  it  is  cheaper  than  coal, 
and  some  is  used  in  shops  where  soldering  and  welding  are  done ;  but  the 
most  exacting  demand  comes  from  gunpowder  manufacturers.  They 
find  this  wood  almost  equal  to  alder  and  willow  as  a  source  of  charcoal 
suitable  for  powder. 

Mexican  Madrona  {Arbutus  xalapensis)  might  properly  be  called 
Texas  madrona  as  it  occurs  in  that  state  and  probably  in  no  other,  but 
its  range  extends  southward  into  Mexico.  It  produces  a  poorly  shaped 
trunk  seldom  much  more  than  twenty  feet  high  and  one  foot  in  diameter, 
and  usually  divided  into  several  branches  near  the  ground.  It  blooms 
in  March  and  ripens  its  fruit  in  midsummer.  The  tree  is  found  on  dry 
limestone  hills,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Blanco,  and  among  the  Eagle 
mountains.  Cabinet  makers  in  Texas  put  the  wood  to  rather  exacting 
uses  after  they  have  carefully  seasoned  it  to  overcome  its  natural  ten- 
dency to  check.  It  is  very  hard;  its  color  is  a  little  lighter  than  apple- 
wood  which  it  resembles;  annual  rings  are  scarcely  visible,  so  regular  and 
even  is  the  year's  growth.  In  Texas  the  wood  is  made  into  plane  stocks, 
tool  handles,  and  mathematical  instruments. 

Arizona  Madrona  {Arbutus  arizonica)  has  a  restricted  range  on 
the  Santa  Catalina  and  Santa  Rita  mountains  of  southern  Arizona,  where 
it  ascends  to  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet  The  species  extends  southward 
into  Mexico.  The  largest  trees  attain  a  height  of  fifty  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  two.  Trunks  are  usually  straight  and  shapely,  and  show 
the  thin,  red  bark  common  to  the  genus.  The  wood  resembles  that  of 
the  species  in  Texas,  and  doubtless  is  suited  to  the  same  pxu-poses,  but  no 
utilization  of  it  has  been  reported,  except  for  fuel,  and  for  fences  and 
sheds  on  mountain  ranches.  When  the  region  becomes  more  thickly 
settled,  the  value  of  the  wood  will  be  appreciated. 

Manzanita  (Arciosiaphylus  manzanita)  is  not  generally  welcomed  by  botanists 
into  the  tree  class.  They  say  it  is  too  small ;  but  it  is  as  large  as  some  of  the  laurels 
which  go  as  trees  without  question,  and  is  shaped  much  like  them.  There  are  several 
species  of  manzanita.  The  word  is  Spanish  and  means  "little  apple."  The  name 
is  natural,  for  one  of  the  most  noticeable  things  about  manzanita  is  the  fruit,  the  size 
of  well-grown  huckleberries.  It  is  shaped  like  an  apple,  and  its  tart  taste  suggests 
that  fruit.  The  Digger  Indians  along  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in 
California  gather  the  berries  by  the  sack,  dry  them,  and  keep  them  for  winter — if 
they  can.  It  is  often  impossible  to  keep  them  because,  like  other  fruit,  they  are  apt 
to  become  wormy.  When  the  Indians  discover  them  in  that  condition  they  display 
rare  thrift  and  economy  for  savages,  by  soaking  the  fruit  and  pressing  out  the  juice, 
which  is  said  to  pass  for  a  pretty  fair  quality  of  cider,  but  it  must  be  quickly  con- 


664  American  Forest  Trees 

sumed  or  it  will  mother  and  change  to  vinegar.  Indians  now  put  the  berries  to  use 
less  frequently  than  in  early  times  when  they  were  nearly  always  hungry. 

Manzanita  is  of  the  same  family  as  madrona.  Its  range  e.xtends  along  the 
mountains  of  the  Pacific  coast  ranges  from  Oregon  to  Mexico,  and  inland  to  Utah. 
The  largest  trees  are  about  twenty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  less  in  diameter;  very  much 
divided  and  branched,  with  limbs  crooked  in  more  ways,  perhaps,  than  those  of  any 
other  representative  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Thousands  of  canes  are  cut  from  the 
branches,  and  if  an)'  living  man  ever  saw  a  straight  one  he  failed  to  report  it.  Manza- 
nita grows  in  almost  impenetrable  thickets  on  dry  slopes  and  ridges.  Its  thin  foliage 
casts  so  pale  a  shadow  that  the  tree's  shade  is  little  cooler  than  the  boiling  sun  upon 
the  open  naked  ground  and  rocks.  The  bark  is  a  reddish-chocolate  color,  and  ex- 
foliates in  scales  of  papery  thinness.  The  heart  is  nearly  of  the  same  color  as  the 
bark,  but  the  sap  is  white  and  very  thin.  The  wood  is  hard,  strong,  stiff,  but  ex- 
ceedingly brittle.     If  a  branch  is  sharply  bent  it  will  fly  into  splinters. 

The  uses  of  the  wood  are  numerous,  but  the  total  quantity  demanded  is  moder- 
ate. Novelty  stores  sell  small  articles  to  tourists  in  California,  sometimes  passing 
the  wood  off  as  mountain  mahogany  which  does  not  so  much  as  belong  to  the  same 
family.  The  most  common  articles  manufactured  by  novelty  shops  from  manzanita 
are  canes,  paper  weight*,  paper  knives,  rulers,  spoons,  napkin  rings,  curtain  rings, 
cuff  buttons,  dominos,  manicure  sticks,  jewel  boxes,  match  safes,  pin  trays,  and 
photo  frames. 


COTTONWOOD 


Cottonwood 


COTTONWOOD* 

{Populus  Deltoides) 

ELEVEN  species  of  Cottonwood  are  found  in  the  United  States,  if  all 
trees  of  the  genus  Populus  are  classed  as  cotton  woods.  It  is  not 
universally  admitted,  however,  that  they  should  be  so  classed.  The 
common  cottonwood  is  the  most  widely  known  of  all  of  them,  but  it  is 
recognized  under  different  names  in  different  regions,  viz. ;  Big  cotton- 
wood,  yellow  cottonwood,  cotton  tree,  Carolina  poplar,  necklace  poplar, 
broadleaf  poplar,  and  whitewood. 

Its  range  covers  practically  all  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  rare  or  missing  in  eastern  New  England  and 
southern  Florida,  and  most  abundant  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  there 
the  largest  trees  are  found.  Some  exceed  100  feet  in  height,  and  four 
in  diameter.  Extreme  sizes  of  140  feet  in  height  with  diameters  of  from 
seven  to  nine  have  been  reported.  The  cottonwood  was  a  frontier  tree 
on  the  western  plains  when  settlers  began  to  push  into  the  region.  It 
grew  as  far  west  as  any  hardwood  of  the  eastern  forests,  and  was  found 
beyond  meridian  100,  which  was  supposed  to  be  the  boundary  between 
the  region  of  rains  and  the  semi-arid  country.  The  cottonwood  clung 
to  the  river  banks  and  to  islands  in  the  rivers,  and  by  that  means  escaped 
the  Indian's  prairie  and  forest  fires  which  he  kindled  every  year  to  im- 
prove the  range  for  the  buffalo.  It  is  supposed  that  most  of  the  open 
country  east  of  meridian  100  was  originally  timbered,  and  that  the 
Indians  destroyed  the  forests  by  their  long-continued  habit  of  burning 
the  woods  and  prairies  every  year  to  improve  the  pasture.  Cottonwood 
was  the  longest  survivor,  because  it  grew  in  damp  places  where  fires  did 
not  burn  fiercely.  Black  willow  was  its  most  frequent  companion  on  the 
western  outposts  of  the  forests. 

The  cottonwood  was  fitted  for  holding  its  ground,  and  pushing 
forward.  Its  light  seeds  are  carried  by  millions  on  the  wind  and  by 
water.  The  tree  bears  large  quantities  of  cotton  (hence  the  name),  and 
when  the  wind  whips  it  from  the  tree,  seeds  are  caught  among  the  fibers 
and  carried  along,  to  be  scattered  miles  away. 


*The  following  species  grow  in  the  United  States:  Cottonwood  (Populus 
deltoides),  Aspen  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  Largetooth  aspen  (Populus  grandidentata). 
Swamp  Cottonwood  (Populus  lieterophylla),  Balm  of  Gilead  (Populus  balsamifera) , 
Lanceleaf  Cottonwood  (Populus  acuminata),  Narrowleaf  Cottonwood  (Populus 
angustifolia).  Black  Cottonwood  (Populus  trichocarpa) ,  Fremont  Cottonwood 
(Populus  fremontii),  Mexican  Cottonwood  (Populus  mexicana),  Te.xas  Cottonwood 
(Populus  mslizeni). 


668  American  Forest  Trees 

This  tree  was  not  much  thought  of  by  eastern  people  who  had 
plenty  of  other  kinds  of  wood,  but  pioneers  on  the  plains  who  had  a  hard 
time  to  get  any,  found  cottonwood  useful.  It  made  fences,  comcribs, 
stables,  cabins,  ox  yokes,  and  fuel.  The  first  canoes  made  by  white 
men  on  the  upper  Missouri  river  were  of  cottonwood.  Lumber  cut  from 
this  tree  is  inclined  to  warp  and  check  unless  carefully  handled,  and  this 
prejudiced  it  in  the  eyes  of  many;  but  difficulties  of  that  kind  were 
easily  mastered,  and  instead  of  being  a  neglected  wood  it  became 
popular.  Some  of  the  largest  early  orders  came  from  Germany.  Vehicle 
makers  in  this  country  employed  it  for  wagon  beds,  as  a  substitute  for 
yellow  poplar  when  that  wood's  cost  advanced.  Manufacturers  of 
agricultural  implements  were  pioneers  in  its  use,  it  being  excellent  ma- 
terial for  hoppers,  chutes,  and  boxes. 

Cottonwood  weighs  24.24  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  approx- 
imately the  weight  of  white  pine.  It  has  about  the  stiffness  of  white 
oak,  but  only  about  eighty  per  cent  of  white  oak's  strength,  and  fifty 
per  cent  of  its  fuel  value.  The  wood  is  very  porous,  but  the  pores  are 
small,  usually  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  medullary  rays  are  small 
and  obsciure.  The  appearance  of  the  wood  is  not  improved  by  quarter- 
sawing.  The  summerwood  forms  a  thin,  dark  line,  so  faint  that  the 
annual  rings  are  often  scarcely  distinguishable.  The  tree  is  generally  a 
rapid  grower;  heartwood  is  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  but  as  a  whole,  this 
tree  produces  white  wood. 

The  annual  cut  is  declining.  It  was  little  more  than  half  in  1910 
what  it  was  in  1899.  Some  regions  where  large  trees  were  once  abundant 
now  have  few.  The  sawmill  output  in  1910  for  the  United  States — 
including  several  species — was  220,000,000  feet.  The  veneer  cut  was 
33,000,000  feet,  log  measure;  the  slack  cooperage  staves,  chiefly  for 
flom-  barrels,  niunbered  44,000,000;  and  pulpwood  amounted  to  about 
18,000,000  feet.  The  lumber  cut  was  largest  in  the  following  states  in 
the  order  named :  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Tennessee, 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Oklahoma,  and  Minnesota.  The  tree  was 
lumbered  in  forty-one  states. 

Cottonwood  is  a  standard  material  in  several  lines  of  manu- 
facturing. It  is  made  into  nearly  every  kind  of  box  that  goes  on  the 
market,  from  the  cigar  box  to  those  in  which  pianos  are  shipped. 
Manufactiu^ers  of  food  products  are  particularly  anxious  to  procure  this 
wood,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  for  woodenware,  such  as  dough  boards, 
ironing  boards,  and  cloth  boards.  It  is  used  by  manufacturers  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  interior  finish,  bank  and  office  fixtures,  musical 
instruments,  furniture,  vehicle  tops,  trunks,  excelsior,  saddle  trees, 
caskets  and  coffins,  and  numerous  others. 


American  Forest  Trees  669 

There  is  no  danger  that  Cottonwood  will  disappear  from  this 
country,  but  it  will  become  scarce.  It  is  being  cut  much  faster  than  it  is 
growing,  and  is  losing  favor  as  a  planted  shade  and  park  tree,  because  of 
its  habit  of  shedding  cotton  in  the  spring  and  its  leaves  in  the  early 
autumn. 

Swamp  Cottonwood  (Populus  heterophylla)  is  known  also  as  river 
Cottonwood,  black  cottonwood,  downy  poplar,  and  swamp  poplar.  Its 
range  describes  a  crude  horseshoe,  running  from  Rhode  Island  down  the 
Atlantic  coast  in  a  narrow  strip,  where  it  is  neither  abundant  nor  of  large 
size ;  touching  northern  Florida ;  running  westward  to  eastern  Texas  and 
thence  up  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  Ohio  river  to  southwestern  Ohio. 
There  is  nothing  handsome  about  its  appearance  with  its  heavy  limbs 
and  sparse,  roimded  crown.  In  the  eastern  range  the  average  height  is 
probably  not  more  than  fifty  feet  but  in  the  fertile  Mississippi  valley  it 
reaches  100  and  has  a  long  merchantable  bole  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Its  bark  is  rugged,  dirty -brown  and  broken  into  loose,  conspicuous 
ridges.  It  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  cottonwoods  by  the 
orange-colored  pith  in  the  twigs.  The  buds  are  rounded  and  red  and 
have  a  resinous  odor.  Sawmills  and  factories  never  list  this  wood 
separately.  It  comes  and  goes  as  cottonwood.  Its  uses  are  the  same 
as  those  of  common  cottonwood.  The  two  species  grow  in  mixture 
throughout  the  entire  range  of  the  swamp  cottonwood. 

Texas  Cottonwood  {Populus  wislizeni)  is  a  rather  large  tree  and 
is  the  common  cottonwood  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  New 
Mexico  and  western  Texas.  The  yellowish  color  of  the  twigs 
is  apt  to  attract  attention.  The  wood  is  used  about  ranches  and  oc- 
casionally a  log  finds  its  way  to  local  sawmills;  but  its  importance  is 
limited  to  the  region  where  it  grows. 

Mexican  Cottonwood  {Populus  mexicmia)  extends  its  range 
north  of  the  Mexican  boundary  into  southern  Arizona  and  southwestern 
New  Mexico.  It  is  abundant  in  Mexico  where  the  largest  trees  are 
eighty  feet  high  and  three  or  four  in  diameter.  It  is  smaller  near  the 
northern  limits  of  its  range,  and  there  it  hugs  the  banks  of  mountain 
streams.  Stockmen  use  the  trunks,  which  are  usually  small  enough  to 
be  called  poles,  to  make  fences  and  sheds. 

Narrowleaf  Cottonwood  {Populus  angustifolia)  is  a  moimtain 
species  which  manages  to  live  in  the  semi-arid  regions  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  Canada  to  Arizona,  but  is  seldom  found  below  an  elevation 
of  5,000  feet,  and  it  ranges  up  to  10,000.  Tnmks  are  eighteen  inches 
or  less  in  diameter,  and  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high.  The  seeds  are  larger 
than  those  of  most  other  cottonwoods.  It  being  a  semi-desert  species, 
its  wood  is  appreciated  where  it  is  accessible,  and  it  has  local  uses  only. 


670  American  Forest  Trees 

Lanceleaf  Cottonwood  {Popidiis  acuminata)  is  a  small  tree  with 
limited  range,  growing  in  the  arid  region  along  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  southward  from  the  Black  Hills.  It  is  found  also 
north  of  the  Canadian  border.  It  is  usually  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter,  and  thirty  or  forty  feet  high.  Trunks  seldom  go  to  saw- 
mills, but  some  local  use  is  made  of  the  wood.  Trees  are  occasionally 
planted  for  shade  in  towns  of  western  Nebraska  and  Wyoming. 

Fremont  Cottonwood  {Populus  frcmontii),  called  white  cotton- 
wood  in  New  Mexico,  but  elsewhere  simply  cottonwood,  grows  from 
western  Texas  to  California,  and  as  far  north  as  Utah  and  Colorado.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  diameter  of  five  or  six  feet  and  a  height  of  100.  The 
Indians  in  New  Mexico  formerly  made  rude,  clumsy  ox  carts  of  this 
wood,  without  a  scrap  of  iron  or  other  metal  in  the  vehicles.  One  of  the 
carts  is  preserved  in  the  National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C.  The 
wood  is  tough  and  light,  but  it  is  dull  white,  with  no  attractive  figure. 
Even  the  annual  rings  are  hardly  distinguishable.  Logs  are  occasionally 
sawed  into  lumber,  and  farmers  in  western  Texas  make  wagon  beds  of  it. 


BALM  OF  GILEAD 


BALM  OF  GILEAD 

(Populus  Balsamifera) 

THIS  tree  is  known  in  different  regions  by  the  following  names: 
Balsam,  balm  of  Gilead,  cottonwood,  poplar,  balsam  poplar,  and 
tacamahac.  The  usual  name,  balm  of  Gilead,  is  applied  in  recognition 
of  the  supposed  healing  virtue  of  the  wax  which  covers  the  buds  and 
yoimg  leaves.  It  has  long  been  used  in  medicine,  but  its  exact  value 
is  still  a  matter  of  discussion.  The  wile'.  Indians  of  the  North  discovered 
a  use  for  the  balsam  in  mending  their  bark  dishes,  and  plugging  knot 
holes  in  the  wooden  trenchers.  The  wax  is  slow  to  dissolve  in  water, 
and  it  resisted  for  a  long  time  such  soups  as  were  known  to  the  redman's 
culinary  art.  Bees  know  the  value  of  the  wax  and  use  it  to  seal  cracks 
and  crevices  in  their  hives  and  to  hold  the  comb  in  place.  It  is  popularly 
believed  that  the  economy  of  the  wax  on  the  buds  is  to  keep  them  from 
freezing.  That  view  is  erroneous,  for  it  would  take  more  than  a  coating 
of  wax  to  keep  the  buds  warm  with  the  thermometer  from  fifty  to  seventy 
degrees  below  zero,  as  it  is  every  winter  in  some  parts  of  this  tree's  range. 

Balm  of  Gilead  is  a  native  of  the  North  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  but  its  finest  growth  is  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Mackenzie 
river,  on  Peace  and  Laird  rivers,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Athabaska. 
Sixty  years  ago  Sir  John  Franklin  reported  that  most  of  the  driftwood 
of  the  Arctic  ocean  was  this  species.  Since  that  time  the  range  has  been 
more  definitely  determined,  and  it  is  now  known  that  the  tree  grows 
so  far  north  that  it  is  for  some  weeks  in  darkness,  and  again  in  summer 
for  some  weeks  in  unbroken  sunshine.  It  grows  in  Alaska  nearly  200 
miles  north  of  the  Arctic  circle.  Its  natural  range  southward  reaches 
New  England,  New  York,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  and  Oregon. 

Trees  of  all  sizes  abound,  from  mere  shrubs  in  the  outskirts  of  its 
range  to  trunks  100  feet  high  and  six  feet  in  diameter  in  favored  localities. 
In  the  United  States  the  best  timber  seldom  exceeds  thirty  inches  in 
diameter  and  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in  height.  The  bark  on  limbs  and 
young  trunks  is  brownish-gray,  frequently  so  tinged  with  green  that  it  is 
noticeable  at  a  considerable  distance;  but  usually  large  trees  have 
reddish-gray  bark  with  deep  furrows  and  wide  ridges.  Year-old  twigs 
are  clear,  shiny  reddish-brown ;  end  buds  are  about  an  inch  long,  the  side 
buds  somewhat  shorter. 

The  wood  is  not  distinguishable  in  appearance  from  that  of  the 
other  poplars  or  cottonwoods,  but  it  is  lighter  than  most  of  them, 
weighing  22.65  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  has  a  breaking  strength  which 
places  it  among  the  weakest  woods,  but  in  stiffness  making  a  much 


674  American  Forest  Trees 

better  showing.  The  pores  are  small,  numerous,  and  are  distributed 
equally  through  all  parts  of  the  wood. 

Balm  of  Gilead  bears  seeds  abundantly  and  scatters  them  widely. 
It  must  do  its  planting  quickly  in  the  short  summers  of  the  cold  North. 
It  sticks  close  to  alluvial  flats,  banks  of  rivers,  borders  of  lakes  and 
swamps,  and  gravelly  soils.  It  grows  to  a  diameter  of  fifteen  inches  in 
about  forty-five  years. 

Though  balm  of  Gilead  is  not  one  of  the  most  important  timber 
trees  of  this  country,  its  place  is  by  no  means  obsciu-e.  No  separate 
tally  is  kept  of  it  among  woods  cut  for  pulp,  but  it  goes  with  aspen  and 
other  similar  species  as  "poplar."  A  little  better  account  is  kept  of  the 
amount  passing  through  wood-using  factories.  The  annual  quantity 
so  reported  in  Illinois  is  2,775,000  feet,  and  it  is  made  into  boxes  and 
crates.  The  lumber  is  shipped  from  the  North,  since  it  does  not  grow 
as  far  south  as  Illinois.  The  situation  is  different  in  Michigan,  for 
balm  of  Gilead  grows  there.  The  amount  going  yearly  into  factories  in 
that  state  is  reported  at  4,912,000  feet.  It  is  made  into  many  com- 
modities, but  boxes  and  crates  take  most  of  it.  The  wood  is  reduced 
to  veneer  and  converted  into  berry  buckets,  grape  baskets,  fruit  and  egg 
crates,  and  other  small  shipping  containers.  It  is  made  into  excelsior 
and  woodwool  which  are  used  as  packing  material.  Druggist's  barrels 
are  manufactiu-ed  from  this  wood.  These  are  small,  two-piece  vessels, 
bored  hollow,  with  a  closely  fitting  lid,  and  varying  in  size  from  a  couple 
of  inches  high,  to  nearly  a  foot.  They  contain  powders,  perfumes,  pills, 
and  other  commodities  in  small  bulk.  The  wood  is  worked  into  pails, 
tubs,  and  kegs.  Ftunitture  makers  put  balm  of  Gilead  to  use  in  several 
ways.  It  is  cut  thin  for  shelving;  it  is  made  into  panels,  and  is  em- 
ployed as  cores  over  which  to  lay  veneers  of  more  expensive  materials. 
Woodenware  factories  generally  keep  it  in  stock  in  the  northern  states. 

The  supply  is  ample  at  present  to  meet  all  demands.  Cutters  of 
pulpwood  probably  take  more  than  sawmills,  and  are  satisfied  with 
smaller  timber.  Trees  are  often  planted  for  ornament,  but  few  if  any 
have  yet  been  propagated  for  forestry  purposes. 

Hairy  Balm  of  Gilead  {Populus  balsamifera  candicans)  is  not  a 
species  but  a  variety,  and  it  is  so  different  from  balm  of  Gilead  that  it  is 
entitled  to  a  place  of  its  own.  Ordinarily  it  passes  under  the  common 
names  applied  to  balm  of  Gilead.  It  is  a  cultivated  tree  in  eastern 
Canada  and  northeastern  United  States,  where  it  has  escaped  from 
cultivation  and  is  running  wild.  Both  Sargent  and  Sudworth  say  that 
nothing  is  definitely  known  of  the  tree's  native  range;  while  it  has  been 
claimed  by  others  that  it  once  grew  wild  in  Michigan  but  was  destroyed 
by  lumbermen.    Probably  most  planted  balm  of  Gileads  are  of  this 


American  Forest  Trees  675 

variety,  as  they  are  very  ornamental.  It  is  a  large  tree  with  branches  less 
upright  and  crowns  more  open  than  in  the  wild  species.  The  leaves  are 
wide,  heart-shaped,  and  are  usually  silvery  white  beneath  with  minute 
hairs  on  the  margins,  on  the  veins,  and  leaf  stems.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  this  variety  could  be  more  profitably  planted  for  forestry  piuposes 
than  the  species  which  grows  wild;  but  there  is  no  present  indication 
that  foresters  favorably  consider  either  of  them. 

Largetooth  Aspen  (Populus  grandidentata)  is  named  on  account 
of  the  shape  of  the  leaves.  It  is  sometimes  called  aspen,  popple,  white 
poplar,  and  large  poplar.  The  wood  weighs  28.87  pounds  per  cubic 
foot,  and  is  the  heaviest  of  the  poplar  group  except  Fremont  cottonwood 
of  the  arid  southwestern  regions.  The  wood  is  white,  attractive,  but  not 
strong.  It  was  formerly  manufactured  into  chip  hats  and  shoe  heels  in 
New  England,  and  is  now  used  for  baskets,  crates,  boxes,  buckets,  re- 
frigerators, excelsior,  and  pulp.  Northern  factories  usually  give  it  the 
general  name  "poplar,"  and  for  that  reason  its  importance  in  the  lumber 
trade  is  underestimated.  Trees  may  reach  a  height  of  seventy  feet  with 
a  diameter  of  two;  but  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  is  more  usual.  The 
species'  range  extends  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota,  southward  to 
Delaware  and  Illinois,  and  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

Gumbo  Limbo  {Bursera  simaruba)  is  a  south  Florida  species  and  is 
known  also  as  West  Indian  bu-ch.  It  is  in  a  family  by  itself  with  no  near 
relative.  It  is  not  a  birch.  The  wood  is  spongy  and  very  light,  weigh- 
ing less  than  nineteen  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  It  decays  with  remarkable 
rapidity.  Branches  thrust  in  the  ground  take  root  and  grow.  An 
aromatic  resin,  exuding  from  woimds  in  the  bark,  is  manufactured  into 
varnish.  The  leaves  are  substituted  for  tea,  and  gout  remedies  are  made 
from  the  resin.  Large  trees  are  fifty  feet  high  and  two  feet  or  more  in 
diameter.  Another  Florida  tree,  not  in  the  same  family  as  this,  is  also 
called  gumbo  limbo  (Simaruha  glauca),  paradise  tree,  and  bitter 
wood.  Ailanthus  (Ailanihus  glandulosa)  is  in  the  same  family  as 
paradise  tree,  but  is  not  native  in  this  country,  though  extensively 
planted  here. 

Angelica  Tree  {A  ralia  spinosa) .  This  is  a  small  tree,  which  usually 
develops  little  or  no  heartwood.  The  springwood,  or  the  inner  and  por- 
ous part  of  the  ring,  is  broad  and  yellow,  the  summerwood,  or  exterior 
part  of  the  ring,  is  narrow  and  dark.  The  wood's  figure,  due  to  the 
marked  contrast  between  the  outer  and  inner  portions  of  the  rings,  is 
strong.  When  finished  it  shows  a  rich  yellow,  but  somewhat  lighter  than 
dwarf  sumach  which  it  resembles.  It  is  made  into  small  shop  articles, 
like  button  boxes,  photograph  frames,  pen  racks,  stools,  and  arms  for 


676  American  Forest  Trees 

rocking  chairs.     Its  range  extends  from  Pennsylvania  to  Texas.     It  is 
sometimes  known  as  Hercules'  dub. 

Aspen  (Populus  tremuloides)  is  widely  known  but  not  everywhere  by  the  same 
name.  It  is  called  quaking  asp,  mountain  asp,  aspen  leaf,  white  poplar,  popple, 
poplar,  and  trembling  poplar.  The  peculiarity  of  the  tree  which  is  apt  to  attract 
attention,  and  which  gives  it  most  of  the  names  it  carries,  is  the  leaf's  habit  of  being 
nearly  always  in  motion.  The  day  is  remarkably  still  if  aspen  foliage  is  not  stirring. 
This  is  due  to  the  long,  flat  leaf  stem,  which  is  so  limber  that  it  offers  little  resistance 
to  air  currents.  The  difference  in  color  between  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the 
leaves  affords  sufficient  contrast  to  attract  notice,  and  for  that  reason  a  person  will 
observe  the  motion  of  aspen  leaves  when  he  might  fail  to  see  a  similar  movement 
among  the  leaves  of  other  species  where  the  contrast  of  colors  is  not  so  marked. 
Aspen  is  credited  with  being  the  most  widely  distributed  tree  of  North  America.  It 
grows  from  Tennessee  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  from  Mexico  to  northern  Alaska,  from 
Labrador  to  Bering  strait.  It  is  found  at  sea  level,  and  at  10,000  feet  elevation  among 
the  mountains  of  California.  Its  very  small  seeds  grow  in  enormous  numbers. 
Winds  carry  them  miles,  and  scatter  them  by  millions.  They  spring  up  quickly  when 
they  fall  on  mineral  soil.  This  places  it  in  the  class  with  "fire  trees" — those  which  take 
possession  of  burned  tracts.  Paper  birch  is  in  this  class.  Aspen  has  replaced  pines 
over  large  burned  areas  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  grows  quickly  but  is  weak  if 
it  has  to  contend  with  other  trees.  If  crowded  it  speedily  gives  up  the  fight  and  dies. 
The  wood  is  not  strong,  but  is  useful  for  several  purposes.  Next  to  spruce  and  hem- 
lock, it  is  the  most  important  pulpwood  in  this  country,  and  it  is  coming  into  con- 
siderable use  as  lumber.  The  whiteness  of  the  wood — it  looks  much  like  holly — 
makes  it  a  favorite  for  small  boxes  and  vessels  for  shipping  and  containing  foods. 
It  is  made  into  jelly  buckets,  lard  pails,  fish  kits,  spice  kegs,  sugar  buckets  and  a  long 
line  of  similar  articles.  It  turns  well,  and  is  made  into  wooden  dishes.  Michigan 
alone  uses  two  and  a  half  miUion  feet  of  it  a  year;  and  it  is  in  demand  along  the  whole 
northern  tier  of  states  from  Maine  to  Washington,  but  because  it  is  not  separately 
listed  in  lumber  output,  it  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  is  used.  Trees  are  usually 
small,  though  trunks  three  feet  in  diameter  are  not  unknown.  It  grows  rapidly,  and 
may  be  expected  to  fill  an  important  place  in  this  country's  future  timber  supply. 
There  will  be  no  occasion  to  plant  it  by  artificial  means,  for  nature  will  attend  to  the 
planting. 


BLACK  COTTONWOOD 


BLACK  COTTONWOOD 

(Poptdus  Trichocarpa) 

THIS  member  of  the  cottonwood  group  is  a  strong  tree  that  holds 
its  ground  in  various  latitudes  and  at  many  elevations,  ranging 
from  sea  level  up  to  eight  or  nine  thousand  feet,  and  in  latitude  from 
Alaska  to  southern  California,  a  distance  of  nearly  three  thousand 
miles.  Its  east  and  west  extension  is  more  restricted  and  seldom 
exceeds  foiu"  hundred  miles.  Its  habitat  covers  an  area  of  half  a 
million  square  miles,  and  in  that  space  it  finds  conditions  which  vary 
so  greatly  that  the  tree  which  can  meet  them  must  possess  remarkable 
powers  of  adaptation. 

Beginning  in  Alaska  and  the  interior  of  Yukon  territory,  it  has  an 
arctic  climate.  It  there  not  only  grows  on  the  coast,  but  it  strikes  the 
interior.  It  appears  on  the  headwaters  of  several  streams  which  flow 
into  the  Mackenzie  or  Hudson  bay.  It  passes  south  through  British 
Columbia  and  enters  the  United  States  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  has  been  reported  as  far  east  as  Idaho  and  Montana,  but  further 
information  is  needed  before  its  limits  in  that  direction  can  be  definitely 
fixed. 

When  it  enters  California  it  prefers  the  elevated  valleys  and  can- 
yons of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  though  it  occurs  sparingly  among  the  coast 
ranges.  It  is  generally  found  in  the  Sierras  at  elevations  of  from  3,000 
to  6,000  feet,  though  it  occurs  between  8,000  and  9,000.  Among  the 
San  Jacinto  mountains  of  southern  California  it  grows  at  an  altitude  of 
6,000  feet. 

When  it  occurs  at  low  levels  it  is  usually  found  on  river  bottoms 
and  sand  bars,  in  sandy  and  humous  soils,  and  there  the  largest  trees 
are  found.  At  higher  elevations  it  is  more  apt  to  occur  in  canyon  bot- 
toms and  gulches,  in  moist,  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  and  in  such  situations 
the  black  cottonwood  is  smaller.  The  best  growth  occurs  where  the 
climate  is  humid  and  the  precipitation  is  great.  Beyond  the  reach  of 
sea  fogs,  where  the  tree  depends  on  soil  moisture  chiefly,  it  is  smaller. 

It  is  an  intolerant  tree.  It  must  have  light.  When  it  is  crowded  a 
tall,  slender  trunk  is  developed  and  the  small  crown  is  lifted  clear  above 
its  competitors  into  the  full  light.  If  it  cannot  succeed  in  gaining  that 
position  its  growth  is  stunted  or  the  tree  meets  an  early  death. 

The  black  cottonwood  is  the  greatest  of  the  cottonwoods.  This 
country  produces  no  other  to  match  it,  and,  as  far  as  known,  the 
whole  world  has  none.  The  Pacific  coast  is  remarkable  for  the  giant 
trees  it  produces,  but  most  of  them  are  softwoods — the  redwoods,  the 

679 


680  American  Forest  Trees 

bigtree,  the  sugar  pine,  Douglas  fir,  western  larch,  noble  fir,  Sitka 
spruce  and  western  red  cedar.  This  cottonwood  is  the  largest  of  the 
Pacific  coast  hardwoods.  In  trunk  diameter  it  is  excelled  by  the  weep- 
ing oak  in  the  interior  valleys  of  California,  but  when  both  height  and 
diameter  are  considered,  the  black  cottonwood  is  in  the  West  what 
yellow  poplar  is  in  the  East,  the  largest  of  the  hardwoods. 

Sargent  says  this  tree  reaches  a  height  of  two  hundred  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  eight,  but  Sudworth  is  more  conservative  and  places  the 
trunk  limit  at  six  feet.  The  average  size  is  much  below  the  figures 
given,  but  abundance  of  logs  exceeding  three  feet  in  diameter  reach  the 
sawmills  of  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Old  trees  range  from  150  to  200  years  in  age,  but  trees  under  100 
years  old  are  large  enough  for  saw  timber.  Records  of  the  ages  of  the 
largest  trunks  have  not  been  reported. 

Black  cottonwood  is  a  prolific  seeder,  but  the  seeds  do  not  long 
retain  their  vitality.  If  they  find  lodgment  in  damp  situations,  where 
other  conditions  are  favorable,  the  rate  of  germination  is  high.  Seed- 
lings are  often  very  numerous  on  wet  bars. 

The  excellent  quality  of  the  wood  and  its  suitability  for  many  pur- 
poses bring  it  much  demand  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington more  than  30,000,000  feet  were  used  by  wood-using  industries 
in  1910.     Smaller  quantities  were  reported  in  Oregon  and  California. 

In  strength  the  wood  is  approximately  the  same  as  common  cotton- 
wood, but  in  stiffness  it  much  exceeds  the  eastern  species.  Its  elasticity 
rates  high,  and  compares  favorably  with  some  of  the  valuable  eastern 
hardwoods.  In  weight  it  is  slightly  under  common  cottonwood. 
Trees  are  of  fine  form,  nearly  always  straight,  and  are  generally  free 
from  limbs  to  a  considerable  height. 

The  wood  is  grayish-white,  soft,  tough,  odorless,  tasteless,  long- 
fibered,  nails  well,  is  easily  glued,  and  cuts  into  excellent  rotary  veneer 
with  comparatively  small  expenditure  of  power.  It  does  not  split 
easily  after  it  has  undergone  seasoning,  and  this  property  cormnends 
it  to  box  makers.  It  is  little  disposed  to  shrink  and  swell  in  atmospheric 
changes.  The  absence  of  odor  and  taste  gives  it  much  of  its  value  for 
box  making,  because  foods  are  not  contaminated  by  contact  with  it. 

It  is  manufactured  into  veneer  berry  baskets  and  is  one  of  the 
most  suitable  woods  on  the  Pacific  coast  for  that  purpose.  Candy 
barrel  makers  use  it  in  preference  to  most  others,  and  a  long  line  of 
wooden  ware  articles  draw  much  of  their  material  from  this  source. 
Many  thousands  of  cords  are  cut  yearly  for  the  pulp  mills,  where  material 
for  paper  is  produced.  Black  cottonwood  and  white  fir  are  the  principal 
woods  used  for  pulp  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


American  Forest  Trees  681 

Not  only  is  it  used  for  rotary-cut  veneer,  but  it  is  made  into  cores 
or  backing  on  which  veneers  of  costly  woods  are  glued  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fumitiu-e,  interior  finish  and  fixtures  for  banks,  stores  and 
offices.  It  serves  in  the  same  way  in  casket  making,  and  is  demanded  in 
millions  of  feet. 

It  is  employed  in  amounts  larger  than  any  other  wood  by  excelsior 
mills  in  the  northern  Pacific  coast  region.  It  is  the  only  wood  demanded 
by  that  industry  in  Washington  and  6,400,000  feet  were  cut  into  that 
product  in  1910. 

Slack  coopers  find  it  as  valuable  in  their  business  in  the  far  West 
as  the  common  cottonwood  is  in  the  East,  and  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  staves  are  made  yearly.  It  is  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of 
flour  barrels  and  those  intended  for  other  food  products. 

Trunk  makers  use  it  in  three-ply  veneers  for  the  bodies,  trays, 
boxes  and  compartments  of  trunks  and  for  suit  cases.  Though  soft 
and  light,  it  is  very  tough,  and  sheets  of  veneer  with  the  grains  placed 
transversely  resist  strains  much  better  than  solid  wood  of  the  same 
thickness. 

Vehicle  makers  employ  black  cottonwood  for  the  tops  and  shelves 
of  business  wagons.  Another  of  its  uses  is  as  bottoms  of  drawers  for 
bureaus,  wardrobes,  and  chiffoniers,  and  as  partitions  in  desk  compart- 
ments. A  full  line  of  kitchen  and  pantry  furniture  is  made  wholly 
or  in  part  of  this  wood  in  the  regions  where  it  is  cheap  and  abundant. 

The  cottonwoods  belong  to  a  very  ancient  race  of  broadleaf  trees, 
and  like  several  others,  they  seem  to  have  had  their  origin,  or  at  least  a 
very  early  home,  in  the  far  North,  where  intense  cold  now  excludes 
almost  every  form  of  vegetable  growth  except  the  lowest  orders.  The 
Cretaceous  age  saw  cottonwoods  growing  in  Greenland.  The  cotton 
which  then,  as  now,  carried  the  seeds  and  planted  them  fell  on  more 
hospitable  shores  then  than  can  now  be  found  in  the  far  frozen  North. 
The  genus  was  not  confined  to  the  arctic  and  subarctic  regions,  how- 
ever, for  there  were  cottonwoods  at  that  time,  or  later,  in  more  southern 
latitudes.  There  were  many  species  in  the  central  portion  of  this 
country,  and  also  in  Europe,  long  before  the  ice  age  destroyed  all  the 
forests  north  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri  rivers.  Some  of  the  old 
species  long  ago  ceased  to  exist,  but  others  appear  to  have  come  down  to 
the  present  time  without  great  change. 

The  cottonwood  shows  wonderful  vitality,  which  is  doubtless  a  sur- 
vival of  the  characteristic  which  enabled  it  to  come  down  from  former 
geologic  epochs  to  the  present  time.  A  damaged  and  mutilated  tree 
will  recover.     A  broken  limb,  thrust  in  the  ground,  will  grow. 

Black  Poplar  {Populus  nigra)  is  quite  distinct  from  black  cottonwood,  though 


682  American  Forest  Tre£S 

both  belong  to  the  same  family.  The  latter  is  a  Pacific  coast  species,  while  the  former 
belongs  in  Europe,  although  it  may  have  been  introduced  into  that  country  from 
Persia  or  some  other  eastern  region.  It  is  common  in  the  United  States,  on  account 
of  having  escaped  from  cultivation.  The  best  known  variety  of  this  tree  is  the  Lom- 
bardy  poplar  (Populus  nigra  ilalica).  It  is  easily  recognized  by  the  characteristic 
attitude  of  the  branches  which  grow  upward  close  against  the  trunk.  The  crowns 
of  the  trees  are  very  long  and  slender,  sometimes  not  ten  feet  across  though  fifty  feet 
high.  Their  slimness  gives  the  trees  the  appearance  of  being  much  taller  than  they 
really  are.  They  were  formerly  popular  for  planting  along  lanes  and  in  door  yards. 
Their  slender  and  pointed  spires  cut  the  horizon  with  a  peculiar  effect.  Planting  is 
less  common  nov/  than  formerly,  because  people  have  come  to  know  the  trees  better. 
They  are  probably  the  most  limby  of  all  the  members  of  the  cottonwood  group. 
The  long  trunks  are  masses  of  knots  when  the  limbs  have  been  trimmed  away,  and 
any  desire  to  make  lumber  of  the  trees  is  apt  to  be  discouraged,  though  not  in- 
frequently logs  go  to  local  sawmills,  and  farmers  haul  the  boards  home  to  put  them 
to  some  use  about  the  place.  In  Michigan  and  Ohio,  box  makers  use  the  limiber 
for  the  rougher  and  cheaper  articles  which  they  turn  out. 

The  most  discouraging  thing  about  Lombardy  poplar  is  the  tendency  of  the 
trees  to  send  up  sprouts.  The  living  trees  do  it,  and  the  stumps  are  worse.  The 
sprouts  are  not  confined  to  the  ground  immediately  round  the  base  of  the  tree,  but 
spring  up  many  feet  or  many  yards  distant,  until  they  produce  a  veritable  jungle. 
Years  are  often  required  to  complete  their  extermination  by  grubbing  and  cutting. 

White  Poplar  (Populus  alba)  is  a  European  species  but  has  become  naturaliz- 
ed in  the  United  States.  It  is  widely  planted  as  a  shade  tree,  and  has  escaped  from 
cultivation.  It  may  be  known  by  the  white  undersides  of  its  small  leaves,  and  by  its 
yellowish-green  bark  which  remains  smooth,  except  on  large  trunks.  It  is  not  yet 
important  as  a  source  of  lumber,  but  the  vigor  of  its  growth  indicates  that  it  may 
sometime  become  so.  The  wood  is  soft,  white,  and  light.  Some  persons  consider 
the  tree  objectionable  as  an  ornament  because  of  its  habit  of  sending  up  sprouts 
from  the  roots,  and  because  its  woolly  leaves  collect  dust  and  smoke  until  they  are 
almost  black  by  the  end  of  siumner. 


MANGROVE 


MANGROVE 

(Rhizophora  Mangle) 

THE  mangrove  family  is  large  and  widely  scattered,  but  otily  one 
member  has  gained  a  foothold  in  the  United  States,  and  it  occupies 
only  limited  areas  in  south  Florida,  at  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
on  the  coast  of  Texas.  The  family's  fifteen  genera  are  confined  to  the 
tropics,  with  a  little  overlapping  on  the  temperate  zones.  The  botanical 
name  Rluzophora  refers  to  the  tree's  peculiar  roots,  and  mangle  is  the 
Spanish  for  mangrove.  This  is  one  of  the  few  trees  in  this  coimtry  which 
are  known  by  a  single  name.  It  is  always  called  mangrove,  and  attains 
its  best  development  in  Florida. 

The  leaves  hang  two  years,  are  from  three  to  live  inches  long  and 
one  or  two  wide.  Flowers  are  not  showy,  but  they  are  nearly  always 
present,  blooming  the  year  round,  the  yellow  blossom  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  fruit  proper  is  about  an  inch  long,  but  its  habit  of  sprout- 
ing while  still  on  the  tree  and  sending  down  a  long  stem-like  root,  gives 
the  impression  that  the  fruit  is  several  inches  long,  sometimes  a  foot. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  state  the  average  size  of  mangrove 
trees.  Peculiar  habits  of  growth  make  measurements  difficult.  Neither 
is  it  easy  to  tell  where  a  tree  begins  and  where  it  ends.  Mangrove 
thickets  along  some  of  the  rivers  of  south  Florida,  within  the  influence 
of  tide  water,  are  strange  forms  of  vegetation.  If  the  foliage  alone  is 
considered  from  a  little  distance,  it  reminds  one  of  a  row  of  fig  trees  in 
Louisiana  or  California.  The  color  and  general  appearance  suggests 
fig  trees.  A  nearer  approach  reveals  beneath  the  crowns  a  mass  of 
roots,  stems,  and  limbs,  joined  with  the  ground  beneath  and  the  crowns 
above.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  many  others  that  dangle  from 
above,  like  rope  ends,  some  nearly  touching  the  ground,  others  several 
feet  above.  These  are  roots  or  limbs,  by  whichever  name  one  cares  to 
call  them.  They  grow  from  overhead  branches,  and  strike  for  the 
ground.  When  they  touch  the  soil,  they  quickly  anchor  themselves, 
and  become  stems.  They  then  look  like  slender  poles  set  as  props 
under  the  branches  of  an  overladen  fruit  tree. 

This  strange  habit  of  growth  gives  the  tree  its  character.  Most 
mangroves  stand  in  water.  They  fringe  the  banks  of  rivers  and  bayous, 
extending  the  fringe  as  far  as  the  water  is  shallow.  Growth  of  that 
kind  is  generally  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  the  largest  stems 
from  an  inch  in  diameter  up  to  three  or  four;  but  these  dimensions 
cannot  be  taken  as  limits  to  size.  Sometimes  the  trees  are  sixty  or 
seventy  feet  high,  but  those  which  stand  in  water  seldom  reach  that  size. 


686  American  Forest  Trees 

Trees  which  have  their  beginning  in  the  water  sometimes  end  their  days 
high  and  dry  on  the  land. 

The  mangrove  is  a  land  builder.  The  sycamore  and  willow  are 
land  builders  on  a  small  scale,  along  northern  water-coiu-ses,  but  man- 
grove excels  them  a  hundred  or  a  thousand  fold  where  it  grows  on  the 
low  shores  of  Florida.  The  seed  is  prepared  for  land-building  work 
before  it  drops  from  the  tree.  It  sprouts  a  long,  peculiar  root — it  looks 
like  a  very  slender,  big-ended  cucumber— the  large,  heavy  end  down. 
This  attains  a  length  of  several  inches  or  a  foot.  When  it  drops  from 
the  branch,  the  end  sticks  in  the  mud  and  takes  root,  grows,  and  pro- 
duces a  tree.  But  generally  it  falls  in  water,  and  not  on  a  mud  bank. 
In  that  case  it  floats  away,  the  heavy  end  down,  the  light  end  barely 
appearing  on  the  surface.  Winds  and  currents  drive  it  about  until  the 
lower  tip  finally  touches  bottom  in  some  shallow  place.  There  it  takes 
root,  and  unless  circumstances  are  extremely  adverse,  it  holds  fast, 
finally  becomes  a  tree,  sends  branches  down  from  above  to  take  root  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  a  clump  is  produced.  The  tangled  mass  of 
stems  and  roots  catches  driftwood  and  mud,  resulting  finally  in  a  little 
island,  and  later  the  island  is  joined  to  the  mainland.  Thus  the  land  is 
built.  Many  large  flats  in  Florida  owe  their  origin  to  this  tree.  When 
land  is  permanently  above  water,  the  mangrove  loses,  to  some  extent,  its 
ability  to  send  roots  down  from  the  limbs.  Nature  seldom  does  some- 
thing for  nothing,  and  since  the  mangrove's  aerial  roots  no  longer  serve 
a  useful  purpose  in  nature's  economy,  they  are  dispensed  with.  Trunks 
then  reach  much  larger  size,  and  become  timber  instead  of  thickets. 
The  accompanying  picture  shows  a  mangrove  that  no  longer  stands  in 
water,  and  its  habit  of  growth  is  changing. 

Thickets  of  mangrove  are  useful,  not  only  in  building  new  land,  but 
in  protecting  that  already  built.  Frequently  the  force  of  waves  is 
broken,  which  otherwise  would  destroy  low  shores.  Tremendous  seas, 
in  time  of  storms,  will  roll  over  thickets  of  mangrove  without  uprooting 
them  or  breaking  the  stems.  Again  nature's  fine  engineering  is  apparent. 
When  men  build  lighthouses  which  must  endure  the  shocks  of  waves, 
they  have  learned  to  construct  them  of  open  beams  and  lattice  work. 
The  wave  passes  through  without  delivering  the  full  impact  of  the  blow 
to  the  structure.  No  solid  masonry  will  stand  what  a  comparatively 
light  open  frame  will  endure  without  injury,  because  it  allows  the  waves 
to  pass  on.  A  large  wave  may  strike  with  a  force  of  6,000  pounds  to  the 
square  foot.  The  mangrove  thickets  are  like  the  open-framed  light- 
house— they  let  the  waves  pass  through  and  spend  their  force  gradually 
beyond,  but  they  hold  the  shore  against  washing. 

Admirable  and  wonderful  as  is  nature's  provision  for  protecting  the 


American  Forest  Trees  687 

land  by  a  fringe  of  lattice  work  of  branches  and  stems,  the  marvelous 
efficiency  of  the  provision  has  been  greatly  increased  in  another  way. 
Suppose,  for  illustration,  that  cottonwood  instead  of  mangrove  formed 
the  protective  thickets  along  stormy  shores.  The  first  hour  of  heavy 
seas  would  reduce  the  trees  to  fragments.  The  weak,  brittle  trunks  and 
limbs  would  quickly  break  to  pieces.  But  mangrove  passes  through 
storm  after  storm  unharmed.  It  is  scarcely  believable  that  accident 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  best  wood  for  the  place  is  in  the  place ;  but 
it  is  probable,  rather,  that  ages  of  development  and  natural  selection 
gave  to  mangrove  the  qualities  which  make  possible  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  work.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest,  and  as  far  as  available  data 
may  be  depended  upon,  it  is  absolutely  the  most  elastic  wood  in  the 
United  States.  Shellbark  hickory  is  rated  high  in  both  strength  and 
elasticity;  but  mangrove  rates  higher.  Sargent  gives  hickory's  measure 
of  elasticity  at  1,925,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  but  mangrove's  is 
2,333,000  pounds. 

It  is  thus  fitted  in  the  highest  manner  to  perform  the  work  needed. 
It  plants  itself  in  the  right  place ;  develops  stems  which  will  endure  most 
and  suffer  least;  possesses  enormous  strength  for  resisting  force,  yet  is  so 
extremely  elastic  that  the  force  of  waves  is  exhausted  upon  the  trunks 
and  branches  without  flattening  them  upon  the  ground  or  crushing  them. 
Few  things  of  the  vegetable  world  show  more  perfect  adaptation  to 
environment.  The  wood's  very  heaviness  seems  to  add  one  more 
quality  fitting  it  for  its  place.  When  a  trunk  falls  in  the  water,  it  does 
not  float  away  as  most  trees  would,  but  sinks  like  iron,  lies  on  the  bottom, 
helps  to  hold  the  forming  island  or  bar  in  place,  and  in  its  death  as  in  its 
life  it  is  a  land-builder. ,  Its  efficiency  in  that  particular  is  increased  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  little  affected  by  marine  borers  which,  in  the  warm, 
brackish  waters,  usually  destroy  wood  in  a  short  time. 

IMangrove  is  not  important  commercially,  though  it  is  used  for  a 
number  of  purposes.  The  wood  weighs  72.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  takes 
good  polish,  though  it  is  inclined  to  check  in  drying;  it  contains  many 
small  pores;  medullary  rays  numerous  and  thin;  color  reddish-brown 
streaked  with  lighter  brown.  The  principal  use  of  the  bark  is  for  taiming 
and  the  trunks  for  piles.  It  is  well  fitted  for  fence  posts,  but  not  many 
have  been  used  in  the  region  where  it  grows.  It  rates  high  as  fuel,  but 
its  great  weight  increases  transportation  charges  if  the  haul  is  long. 

Tanbark  peelers  in  Florida  have  cut  much  of  the  large  mangrove 
forest.  They  took  the  bark,  and  abandoned  the  trunks.  There  is  no 
likelihood  that  the  species  will  be  exterminated.  Much  of  the  growth 
is  practically  inaccessible,  and  the  trunks  are  too  small  to  tempt  bark 
peelers,  and  cordwood  cutters  find  plenty  of  material  more  convenient. 


688  American  Forest  Trees 

Other  Species. — Two  other  trees  of  this  country  are  called  mangrove  though 
they  are  not  even  in  the  same  family.  One  is  the  black  mangrove  (Avicennia  nUtd^j, 
called  also  blackwood  and  black  tree.  It  is  a  Florida  species  of  the  family  Verbenacete, 
and  has  some  of  the  mangrove's  habits.  It  takes  root  and  grows  on  muddy  shores 
and  is  a  land  builder.  The  largest  trees  are  si.xty  or  seventy  feet  high  and  two  in 
diameter,  but  are  usually  less  than  thirty  feet  high.  The  bark  is  used  in  tanning,  and 
no  use  for  the  wood  is  reported,  except  for  fuel.  White  mangrove  (Lagumularia 
racemosa),  known  also  as  white  buttonwood,  is  a  Florida  species.  It  attains  a  height 
of  thirty  or  forty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more.  It  reaches  its  largest  size 
on  the  shores  of  Shark  river,  Florida.  The  wood  is  dark  yellow-brown,  and  the  bark 
is  rich  in  tannin,  and  the  tree  may  become  valuable  as  a  source  of  tanbark. 

Near  akin  to  white  mangrove  is  Florida  buttonwood  (Ccmocarpus  erecta) 
which  is  highly  esteemed  as  fuel.  It  burns  slowly  like  charcoal.  Trees  are  from 
twenty  to  fifty  feet  high.  Its  range  lies  in  southern  Florida.  Black  olive  tree 
(Tertninalia  buceras)  belongs  in  the  south  Florida  group,  and  the  wood  is  exceedingly 
hard  and  heavy.  The  trunk  is  often  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter,  but  lies  on  the 
ground  like  a  log,  with  upright  stems  growing  from  it.    Tanners  make  use  of  the  bark. 


CABBAGE  PALMETTO 


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Cabbage  Palmetto 


THE  PALMS 

LUMBERMEN  in  this  country  could  get  along  very  well  without  the 
palms,  as  they  are  little  used  for  ordinary  lumber.  Their  wood  does 
not  grow  in  concentric  rings,  like  that  of  the  ordinary  tree.  The  stems 
are  usually  single,  cylindrical,  and  unbranched.  The  fruit  is  berry -like, 
and  is  usually  one  seeded,  though  sometimes  there  are  two  or  three. 
When  a  seed  sprouts,  it  puts  out  at  first  a  single  leaf,  like  a  grain  of  com. 
About  130  genera  of  palms  are  recognized  in  the  world,  most  of  them  in 
the  tropics,  but  several  in  the  United  States  are  of  tree  size.  Botanists 
divide  the  palms  of  the  United  States  into  two  groups,  the  palm  family 
and  the  lily  family.  The  yuccas  belong  in  the  lily  family.  In  the  very 
brief  treatment  that  can  be  given  the  subject  here,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
recognize  strict  family  divisions. 

Cabbage  Palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto)  grows  in  the  coast  region 
from  North  Carolina  to  southern  Florida,  and  west  to  the  Apalachicola 
river.  It  is  sometimes  called  Bank's  palmetto,  cabbage  tree,  and  tree 
palmetto.  The  name  cabbage  is  due  to  the  large  leaf-bud  in  the  top  of 
the  stem  which  is  cooked  as  a  substitute  for  cabbage.  A  sharp  hatchet 
and  some  experience  are  necessary  to  a  successful  operation  in  extracting 
the  bud  from  the  tough  fibers  which  surround  it. 

This  palm  is  a  familiar  sight  in  the  coast  region  within  its  range. 
The  tall  trunks,  with  tufts  of  leaves  at  the  tops,  suggest  the  supposed 
scenery  of  the  Carboniferous  age.  Usually  the  trunks,  in  thick  stands, 
rise  straight  like  columns  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  but  occasionally 
they  bend  in  long,  graceful  curves,  as  if  the  weight  of  the  tops  caused 
them  to  careen,  which  is  probably  what  does  happen.  They  vary  in 
diameter  from  eight  inches  to  two  feet. 

The  leaves  are  five  or  six  feet  long,  and  seven  or  eight  wide,  with 
stems  six  or  seven  feet  long.  Flowers  occur  in  racemes  two  feet  or  more 
in  length.  The  fruit  is  spherical  and  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  roots  are  an  important  part  of  this  palm,  and  are  adapted  to  their 
environment,  forming  a  rounded  mass  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  while 
small  rope-like  roots,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  penetrate  the  wet  marshy 
soil  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  The  large,  globe-like  mass  gives  support  in 
the  soft  soil,  and  the  stringy  roots  supply  water  and  mineral  substances 
essential  to  growth.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  pale-brown,  with  numerous 
hard,  fibro-vascular  bundles,  the  outer  rim  about  two  inches  thick  and 
much  lighter  and  softer  than  the  interior.  The  most  important  use  for 
the  wood  at  present  is  as  wharf  piles.  It  lasts  well  and  is  ideal  in  form. 
It  is  of  historical  interest  that  Fort  Moultrie  which  defended  Charleston, 


692  American  Forest  Trees 

South  Carolina,  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  was  built  of  palmetto  logs. 
When  the  British  made  their  memorable  attack  in  1776,  their  cannon 
balls  buried  in  the  spongy  logs  without  dislodging  them,  and  the  fort 
successfully  withstood  the  bombardment  of  ten  hours,  and  disabled 
nine  of  the  ten  British  ships  taking  part  in  the  assault. 

The  wood  is  employed  to  a  small  extent  in  furniture  making,  and 
the  bark  for  scrubbing  brushes.  Some  of  the  finest  forests  of  palmetto 
in  Florida  are  much  injured  by  fire  that  runs  up  the  trunks  to  feed  on 
stubs  of  leaves. 

SiLKTOP  Palmetto  (Thrinax  parviflora)  and  silvertop  palmetto 
{Thrinax  microcarpa)  are  species  met  with  on  some  of  the  islands  off  the 
coast  of  southern  Florida. 

Mexican  Palmetto  (Sahal  mcxicana)  is  much  like  cabbage 
palmetto  in  size  and  general  appearance,  and  is  put  to  similar  uses,  except 
that  the  leaf-bud  does  not  appear  to  be  used  as  food.  The  tree  occurs  in 
Texas  along  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  and  southward  into  Mexico  where  the 
leaves  are  employed  as  house  thatch  by  improvident  Mexicans  and 
Indians  who  do  not  care  to  exert  themselves  to  procure  better  roofing 
material.  In  the  vicinity  of  Brownsville,  Texas,  trunks  of  this  palm 
are  employed  as  porch  posts  and  present  a  rustic  appearance.  They 
are  said  to  last  many  years.  The  average  size  of  trunks  in  Texas  is 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high  and  a  foot  or  less  in  diameter,  but  some  much 
larger  are  found  in  Mexico.  Some  of  the  wharfs  along  the  Texas  coast 
are  built  on  palmetto  piles.  It  is  said  the  trunks  are  not  as  strong  as 
those  of  the  cabbage  palmetto  in  Florida. 

Sargent  Palm  (Pseudophacnix  sargentii)  is  interesting  but  not 
commercially  important,  but  may  become  so  as  an  ornamental  plant. 
It  is  occasionally  planted  on  lawns  in  south  Florida.  Leaves  are  five  or 
six  feet  long  with  stems  still  longer.  The  clusters  of  flowers  are  some- 
times three  feet  in  length.  A  single  species  is  known,  occurring  on  certain 
keys  in  southern  Florida,  and  is  so  limited  in  its  range  that  it  would  be 
possible  to  count  every  tree  in  existence.  A  grove  of  200  or  300  trees 
occurs  on  Key  Largo. 

Royal  Palm  (Oreodoxa  rcgia)  is  one  of  the  largest  palms  of  this 
country.  It  is  said  to  reach  a  height  of  eighty  feet,  but  such  sizes  are 
rare.  The  trunk  rises  from  an  enlarged  base,  and  may  be  two  feet  in 
diameter.  Bark  is  light  gray  in  color,  and  its  appearance  suggests  a 
column  of  cement.  Leaves  are  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  and  the  stems 
increase  the  total  length  to  twenty  feet  or  more.  Flowers  are  two  feet 
in  length,  and  in  Florida  open  in  January  and  February.  The  fruit  is 
smaller  than  would  be  expected  of  a  tree  so  large.  It  is  a  drupe  about 
the  size  of  a  half-grown  grape.     The  wood   is  spongy,  but  the  outer 


American  Forest  Trees  693 

portion  of  the  stem  is  strong  and  is  made  into  canes  and  other  small 
articles.  Trunks  are  sometimes  used  as  wharf  piles.  This  palm's 
range  is  confined  to  south  Florida  in  this  country,  but  it  is  common  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  Miami  and  other  towns  of  southern  Florida  it  is 
much  planted  for  ornament. 

Fanleaf  Palm  (Ncowashingtoniafilameniosa)  also  called  Washing- 
ton palm,  California  fan  palm,  Arizona  palm,  and  wild  date,  ranges 
through  southern  California,  and  occupies  depressions  in  the  desert 
west  of  the  Colorado  river.  There  are  said  to  be  several  forms  and 
varieties.  It  ranges  in  height  from  thirty-five  to  seventy  feet  and  in 
diameter  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches.  Trunks  are  of  nearly  the  same 
diameter  from  bottom  to  top,  or  taper  very  gradually.  They  usually 
lean  a  little.  Dead  leaves  hang  about  the  trunks  and  blaze  quickly 
when  fire  touches  them,  but  the  palm  is  seldom  killed  by  fire.  The 
small  black  fruit  is  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  no  com- 
mercial importance;  wood  is  little  used;  and  the  tree  is  chiefly  orna- 
mental, and  has  been  much  planted  in  California. 

Mohave  Yucca  {Yucca  mohavensis)  is  one  of  a  half  dozen  or  more 
palms  of  the  yucca  genus  and  the  lily  family.  Trees  of  this  group  are 
characterized  by  their  stiff,  sharp-pointed  leaves,  some  of  which  are 
called  daggers  and  others  bayonets.  Both  names  are  appropriate.  The 
Mohave  yucca  takes  its  name  from  the  Mahave  desert  in  California, 
where  it  is  occasionally  an  important  feature  of  the  doleful  landscape. 
The  ragged,  leather-like  leaves,  forming  the  tops  of  the  short,  weird 
trees,  rattle  in  the  wind,  or  resound  with  the  patter  of  pebbles  when 
sandstorms  sweep  across  the  dry  wastes.  It  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the 
most  slowly-growing  trees  of  this  country.  Trunks  are  seldom  more 
than  fifteen  feet  high  and  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is 
spongy  and  interlaced  with  tough,  stringy  fibers.  Stockmen  whose 
ranges  include  this  tree,  make  corrals  of  the  stems  by  setting  them  in 
the  ground  as  palisades.  When  weathered  by  wind  and  made  bone  dry 
by  the  sun's  fierce  heat,  the  trunks  are  reduced  to  almost  cork-lightness. 
Other  yuccas  are  the  Spanish  bayonet  (Yucca  treculeana)  of  Texas; 
Joshua- tree  {Yticca  arborescens),  which  ranges  from  Utah  to  California 
and  is  known  as  tree  yucca,  yucca  cactus,  and  the  Joshua;  Schott  yucca 
{Yucca  brcvifolia)  of  southern  Arizona;  broadfruit  yucca  {Yucca  macro- 
car/>a)  of  southwestern  Texas;  aloe-leaf  yucca  (Fztcca  aloifolia)  with  a 
range  from  North  Carolina  near  the  coast  to  Louisiana;  and  Spanish 
dagger  {Yucca  gloriosa),  on  the  coast  and  islands  of  South  Carolina. 

Giant  Cactus  (Cereus  giganieus)  is  a  leafless  tree  of  Arizona  and  attains  a 
height  of  forty  or  sixty  feet,  diameter  of  one  or  two.  About  twenty  genera  of  cactus 
are  known  in  the  world  and  a  large  number  of  species.     Two  genera,  the  cereuses  and 


694  American  Forest  Trees 

opuntias,  have  representatives  of  tree  size  in  this  country.  The  two  genera  differ 
in  form.  Cereus  in  the  Latin  language  means  a  candle,  and  the  cactuses  of  that 
genus  stand  up  in  straight  stems  like  candles,  or  have  branches  like  old-fashioned 
candlesticks.  The  opunitas  have  flat,  jointed  stems,  like  thick  leaves.  Giant  cactus 
bears  flowers  four  inches  long  and  two  wide;  fruit  two  inches  long  and  one  wide,  and 
edible.  Indians  derive  a  considerable  part  of  their  food  from  this  cactus.  They 
use  the  wood  for  rafters,  fences,  fuel,  lances,  and  bows.  The  trunks  consist  of 
bundles  of  fiber,  very  hard  and  strong.  In  the  dry  region  where  this  cactus  grows, 
the  woody  parts  of  fallen  stems  last  long  periods,  some  say  for  centuries,  but  there  are 
no  records.  Schott  cactus  {Cereus  schoUii)  and  Thurber  cactus  (Cereus  thurberi)  are 
found  in  southern  Arizona  and  southward  in  Mexico. 

Cholla  (Opuntia  fulgida)  ranges  from  Nevada  southward  into  Mexico.  It  is 
popularly  called  "divil's  tongue  cactus,"  but  there  are  other  species  with  the  same 
name.  Trunks  are  occasionally  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and  the  wood  is  made  into 
canes  and  small  articles  of  furniture,  but  as  lumber  it  is  not  important.  The  fruit  is 
not  eaten.  A  closely-related  species  is  known  as  tassajo  [Opuntia  sponsior).  It  is 
found  on  the  dry  mesas  of  southern  Arizona  where  trunks  may  be  ten  feet  high  and  a 
few  inches  in  diameter.  It  has  the  same  uses  as  cholla.  A  third  species  is  Opuntia 
versicolor  of  southern  Arizona.  It  is  similar  to  the  other  opuntias.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  grow  spineless  varieties  of  this  group  of  cactuses.  It  is  believed  that 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  would  thrive  on  the  pulpy  growth,  if  the  thorns  could  be 
gotten  rid  of.  The  semi-desert  regions  of  the  Southwest  produce  enormous  quan- 
tities of  cactus  of  many  kinds,  and  if  those  worthless  species  could  be  made  way  with 
and  thornless  varieties  substituted,  it  is  probable  that  much  land  now  worthless 
would  become  valuable. 


MINOR  SPECIES 

A  considerable  number  of  trees  grow  in  this  country  which,  taken 
singly,  are  of  small  importance,  but  in  the  aggregate  they  fill  a  place 
which  would  be  difficult  to  fill  without  them.  Most  of  them  are  local, 
and  are  seldom  heard  of  outside  of  the  regions  where  they  grow.  Some 
are  small,  and  for  that  reason  are  not  demanded  by  the  ordinary  user 
of  lumber;  but  small  size  is  not  necessarily  a  bar  to  the  use  of  a  wood. 
Many  places  may  be  filled  by  pieces  too  small  for  the  sawmill.  Some- 
times a  diminutive  trunk  contains  material  of  extraordinary  hardness, 
or  it  may  be  polished  to  a  rare  smoothness,  or  the  colors  may  be  ex- 
quisite. Numerous  commodities  can  be  successfully  manufactured 
from  blocks  or  billets  which  are  only  a  few  inches  in  diameter  and  a  foot 
or  two  in  length.  This  is  particularly  true  of  some  of  the  rare  hard- 
woods of  Florida  and  southern  Texas  where  tropical  species  have  ex- 
tended their  ranges  northward  over  the  borders  of  the  United  States. 
Some  of  the  small  trees  in  that  group  are  known  by  name  in  only  the 
immediate  locality  where  they  grow,  and  their  qualities  are  scarcely 
appreciated  even  there.  In  some  instances  railroad  ties  are  hewed 
from  wood  which  is  fit  for  the  finest  furniture. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  Mexicans  along  the  Rio  Grande  to 
warm  their  huts  and  cook  their  meals  with  fuel  chopped  from  trunks 
of  Texas  ebony,  algarita,  cat's  claw,  bluewood,  huisache,  retama,  and 
junco.  Those  who  have  traveled  among  the  Indian  rancherias  of  New 
Mexico  and  Utah  have  grown  familiar  with  the  peculiar  odor  filling  the 
air  in  the  vicinity  of  camp  fires.  It  is  the  smoke  of  the  rare  junipers 
which  the  Indians  burn  for  fuel ;  and  yet  it  is  wood  of  such  soft  tones  and 
exquisite  blending  of  colors  that  the  shades  of  a  Persian  rug  suffer  by 
comparison.  Among  the  ten  thousand  islands  which  fringe  the  coasts 
of  south  Florida,  and  also  among  the  hummocks  of  the  mainland,  are 
rare  trees  whose  wood  is  unsurpassed  in  hardness,  fineness  of  texture, 
and  beauty.  These  are  not  being  used  at  all,  or  only  as  fuel  to  feed  some 
fisherman's  or  camper's  fire,  or  to  make  a  smoke  to  drive  away  mosquit- 
oes. The  time  will  come  when  small  and  scarce  woods  will  be  sought,  if 
they  are  valuable  for  any  special  purpose.  In  preceding  pages  of  this 
book  many  minor  species  have  been  listed  and  briefly  described  in 
connection  with  those  more  important,  and  with  which  they  are  closely 
related.  There  are  more  than  a  hundred  others  which  were  necessarily 
omitted  from  former  pages.  A  few  of  these  deserve  at  least  a  brief 
mention,  and  are  listed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

KcEBERLiNiA    (Kasberlinia   spinosa)    is    commonly    considered    a 


698  American  Forest  Trees 

curiosity;  a  tree  without  a  relative  in  the  world,  and  without  leaves, 
flowers,  or  fruit.  The  popular  notion  is  wrong,  of  course,  for  no  tree  is 
without  relatives,  and  none  without  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  or 
something  that  takes  their  place.  The  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit  of  this 
tree  are  small  and  escape  notice  of  the  casual  observer,  but  they  exist. 
Its  nearest  relative  in  this  country  is  the  paradise  tree  of  Florida  and  the 
ailanthus  introduced  from  China.  It  has  a  small,  thorny,  crooked  trunk ; 
the  wood  is  dark,  turning  nearly  black  with  exposure ;  it  is  rich  with  oil ; 
and  it  is  very  hard.  The  species  grows  in  certain  places  along  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  wood  is  made  into  canes,  rulers,  knife  handles,  turned 
articles,  and  a  little  furniture  of  the  smaller  kinds.  The  trunks  are  too 
small  for  ordinary  sizes  of  lumber. 

Gum  Elastic  {Bumelia  lanuginosa)  ranges  from  Georgia  to  Texas, 
and  in  Florida  is  called  black  haw.  Children  in  Texas  mix  its  berries 
with  chewing  gum,  to  increase  the  quantity,  and  the  name  which  they 
apply  to  it  is  "gum  stretch  it."  An  exuded  resin  is  also  used  for  chewing 
gum.  Trees  are  sometimes  sixty  feet  high  and  two  in  diameter,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  logs  go  to  hardwood  mills,  where  they  lose  their 
name,  and  possibly  appear  as  ash  lumber,  or  occasionally  as  maple. 
The  wood  is  white,  tinged  with  yellow,  and  is  manufactured  into 
agricultural  implements.  A  scarce  and  smaller  species,  known  as  buck- 
thorn bumelia  and  ironwood  {Bumelia  lycioides)  covers  nearly  the  same 
range.  From  a  tree  of  the  same  family  in  southern  Asia  the  gutta  percha 
of  commerce  is  obtained.  Other  woods  of  the  same  family  in  this 
country  are  mastic  (Sideroxylon  viastichodeiidron)  of  south  Florida,  a 
tree  sometimes  sixty  feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter,  useful  for  boat 
building;  satinleaf  {Chrysophyllummonopyrcntim),  also  of  Florida,  a  tree 
twenty-five  feet  high  and  one  in  diameter,  the  wood  very  heavy,  hard, 
and  strong;  tough  bumelia  {Bumelia  tcnax),  ranging  from  South  Carolina 
to  Florida,  a  tree  twenty  feet  high  and  six  inches  in  diameter, 
called  black  haw  in  some  parts  of  its  range;  saffron  plum  or  ant's  wood 
{Bumelia  angustifolia),  growing  in  Florida  and  Texas,  the  trunk  twenty 
feet  high  and  six  inches  in  diameter;  wood  orange  colored,  and  the  fruit 
sweet;  bustic  {Dipholis  salicifolia),  in  south  Florida,  a  tree  forty  feet 
high  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  with  wood  exceedingly  hard, 
strong,  and  heavy,  and  dark  brown  or  red  in  color;  wild  sapodilla  or 
dilly  {Miviusops  sieberi),  a  tree  of  south  Florida  with  rich,  very  dark 
brown  wood,  height  of  tree  twenty  feet,  diameter  one  foot. 

Dwarf  Sumach  {Rhus  copallina)  is  known  by  many  names.  It  is 
distinguished  from  staghom  sumach  by  its  smooth  branches,  those  of 
staghom  being  hairy.  Sumach's  chief  importance  is  due  to  its  value  as 
tanning  material.     Leaves  and  small  branches  are  used.     The  family  has 


American  Forest  Trees  699 

some  well-known  members  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  among  them  the 
mangoes.  The  name  dwarf  sumach  is  not  well  selected,  for  the  species  is 
nearly  as  large  as  any  other  sumach.  Trees  are  sometimes  thirty  feet 
high  and  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  tree's  range  extends  from  New 
England  to  Florida  and  Texas.  It  reaches  its  largest  size  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  In  the  East  and  North  it  is  usually  a  shrub.  Trees 
of  largest  size  are  not  believed  to  exceed  fifty  years  in  age.  The  wood 
is  richly  striped  with  yellow  and  black.  Balls  tiamed  of  it,  seven  inches 
in  diameter,  are  used  for  newel-post  ornaments,  and  smaller  balls  are 
made  for  use  in  darning  stockings.  Cups  are  turned  on  the  lathe,  and 
the  bright  stripes  in  the  wood  give  the  wares  a  striking  appearance.  It 
was  formerly  much  employed  for  spiles  in  tapping  maple  trees  for  sugar 
making.  Staghom  sumach  {Rhus  hirta)  is  of  a  different  species  but  of 
the  same  genus.  Its  range  extends  from  New  Brunswick  nearly  to  the 
Mississippi  river.  Its  name  refers  to  the  down  on  the  young  branches 
resembling  the  velvet  on  the  horns  of  a  deer  at  certain  seasons.  The  tree 
is  known  as  Virginia  sumach  and  hairy  sumach.  Its  compound  leaves 
are  sometimes  two  feet  long — two  or  three  times  the  size  of  dwarf 
sumach's.  Trunks  have  been  reported  forty  feet  high  and  more  than  a 
foot  through.  The  uses  of  this  wood  are  the  same  as  of  dwarf  sumach, 
including  tanning.  It  is  more  abundant  east  than  west  of  the  Alleghan- 
ies.  Poisonwood  (Rhus  mctopium)  belongs  to  the  same  family.  It  is 
known  in  Florida  as  doctor  gum,  hog  plum,  coral  sumach,  bumwood, 
and  mountain  manchineel.  The  juice  is  exceedingly  poisonous,  and  gum 
produced  by  wounding  the  bark  is  reported  to  have  medicinal  value. 
Trees  are  sometimes  forty  feet  high  and  two  feet  in  diameter.  The 
American  smoke  tree  (Colimis  cotinoides)  is  another  member  of  the 
sumach  family.  It  is  found  in  the  southern  states  from  eastern  Ten- 
nessee to  Texas.  It  is  nowhere  common,  and  its  only  reported  use  is  as 
fence  posts.  Trees  may  be  a  foot  in  diameter  and  thirty  feet  high.  The 
wood  is  a  bright  clear  orange  color,  and  a  yellow  dye  has  been  manu- 
facttured  from  it.  Poison  sumach  (Rhus  vermx)  is  not  the  same  as  poison- 
wood,  though  sometimes  the  two  are  confounded.  It  is  usually  a  shrub, 
and  rarely  twenty  feet  high.  It  is  overloaded  with  names,  as  might  be 
expected  of  a  plant  considered  as  dangerous  as  this.  Among  its  names 
are  poison  elder,  poison  dogwood,  swamp  simiacn,  poison  oak,  poison- 
wood,  poisontree,  and  thunderwood.  It  grows  from  New  England  to 
Georgia,  and  west  to  Minnesota  and  Louisiana.  It  is  apt  to  occur  in  wet 
swamps,  and  Sargent  pronounces  it  "one  of  the  most  dangerous  plants  of 
the  North  American  flora."  A  black,  lustrous  varnish  can  be  made  of 
the  acrid  poisonous  juice,  and  this  may  sometime  give  the  species  a 
commercial  value.   When  the  skin  is  poisoned  by  contact  with  this  tree, 


700  American  Forest  Trees 

an  effective  remedy  may  be  found  in  a  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of 
acetate  of  lead,  if  applied  as  a  wash  within  an  hour  or  two  after  the 
poisoning  occurs.  A  wash  with  pure  alcohol  is  also  effective  if  applied 
within  an  hour.  Following  either  treatment  the  skin  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  soap  and  water.  Western  sumach  {Rhus  integrifolia), 
a  closely  related  California  species,  is  a  small  evergreen,  seldom  more 
than  twenty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard, 
and  red,  is  used  as  fuel,  and  occasionally  in  small  turnery.  The  fruit  is 
a  berry  half  an  inch  long. 

Cascara  Buckthorn  (Rhamnus  purshiana)  is  of  the  buckthorn 
family,  and  is  known  by  many  names  on  the  Pacific  coast  where  the 
species  is  best  developed.  It  grows  as  far  east  as  Colorado  and  Texas. 
Cascara  sagrada,  its  Mexican  name,  is  often  used  for  this  tree.  It  is 
known  also  as  bearberry,  bearwood,  yellow-wood,  pigeonberry,  coffee- 
berry,  bayberry,  and  California  coffee.  The  tree's  usual  size  is  from  ten 
to  thirty  feet  high  and  twelve  to  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  often 
shrubby,  and  is  more  valuable  for  its  bark  than  its  wood.  Large  quan- 
tities are  peeled  for  medicinal  uses,  and  many  trees  are  thus  destroyed. 
A  little  of  the  wood  is  burned  as  fuel,  and  some  is  made  into 
handles.  Yellow  buckthorn  {Rhamnus  caroliniana),  with  a  range  from 
New  York  to  Texas,  and  evergreen  buckthorn  {Rhamnus  crocea),  a 
California  species,  are  closely  related  to  cascara  buckthorn,  but  are  of 
comparatively  little  importance.  Blue  myrtle  {Ceanolhtis  thyrsiflorus)  fe, 
a  California  species,  sometimes  called  wild  lilac  or  blue  blossoms.  It 
ranges  in  height  from  thirty-five  feet,  among  the  redwoods  on  the  Santa 
Cruz  mountains,  to  only  one  foot  high  on  some  of  the  wind-swept  coasts. 
The  wood  is  pale  yellowish-brown,  and  is  somewhat  used  for  novelties. 
Tree  myrtle  {Ccanothus  arhoreus),  often  known  as  lilac,  is  also  a  Cali- 
fornia tree,  closely  related  to  blue  myrtle,  but  is  of  smaller  size  and  of 
very  restricted  range.  Its  prospective  value  lies  more  in  its  bloom  than 
in  its  wood.  Naked-wood  {Colubrina  reclinata),  a  Florida  species,  is 
of  a  kindred  genus.  Trees  are  sometimes  fifty  feet  high  and  three  in 
diameter.  The  wood  is  hard,  very  strong,  and  is  dark  brown  tinged 
with  yellow. 

LiGNUM-viT^  {Guajacum  sanctum)  grows  in  Florida,  and  a  species 
which  is  probably  the  same  is  found  in  south  Texas  along  the  Rio  Grande. 
In  Texas  the  tree  is  known  as  guayacou,  which  name  has  come  down 
from  the  times  when  the  Carib  Indians  ruled  the  West  Indies.  That 
was  their  name  for  the  tree.  The  annual  rings  are  usually  too  vague 
and  too  involv£d  to  be  counted,  but  the  tree  is  known  to  be  of  slow 
growth.  The  wood  is  pitted  and  it  contains  cavities  and  creases;  but 
the  clear  wood  is  very  hard  and  of  fine  and  various  colors.     It  is  dark 


American  Forest  Trees  701 

green,  brown,  black,  yellow  and  of  mixed  colors,  and  clouded  effects,  all 
in  the  same  block.  Small  pieces  of  furniture,  like  bureau  cabinets, 
present  attractive  combinations  of  colors.  The  wood  is  of  such  exceed- 
ing hardness  that  it  turns,  breaks,  or  batters  the  carpenter's  tools. 
Candlesticks,  egg  cups,  goblets,  vases,  checker  pieces,  dominos,  boxes, 
trays,  canes,  paper  knives,  and  souvenirs  are  manufactured  in  a  small 
way.  Trees  attain  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two  or 
more.  The  compound  leaves  adhere  to  the  branches  until  those  of  the 
following  season  appear.  The  fruit  is  an  orange-colored  pod  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long. 

Prickly  Ash  (Xanthoxylum  dava-herculis).  Some  know  this 
species  as  toothache  tree,  tear-blanket,  sting-tongue,  and  Hercules'  club. 
The  wood  shows  little  difference  in  color  between  heartwood  and  sap,  and 
bears  some  resemblance  to  buckeye.  It  takes  good  polish  and  some  of 
it  looks  like  birdseye  maple,  but  the  figure  does  not  seem  to  be  due  to 
adventitious  buds.  It  has  been  made  into  picture  frames  and  looks 
well.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  since  its  color  fits  it  for  the  stencil,  it 
might  be  worthy  of  consideration  for  box  material.  Trees  reach  a  height 
of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more.  Its 
range  extends  from  Virginia  to  Texas.  Satinwood  (Xanthoxylum 
cribrosum)  is  of  the  same  genus,  but  it  does  not  grow  north  of  Florida 
where  it  is  sometimes  called  yellow-wood.  Mature  trees  are  a  foot  or 
oiore  in  diameter  and  twenty-five  or  thirty-five  feet  high;  wood  heavy, 
exceedingly  hard  and  brittle,  but  not  strong;  color  light  orange.  It  has 
some  use  as  furniture  material,  and  for  certain  classes  of  handles  which 
need  not  be  strong.  Wild  lime  (Xanthoxylum  fagara)  is  a  similar  tree, 
growing  in  both  Florida  and  Texas,  but  it  is  of  small  size.  Hoptree 
(Ptelea  irijoliaia)  is  another  member  of  the  family.  Its  fruit  is  some- 
times substituted  for  hops  for  brewing  beer.  It  is  known  also  as  wafer 
ash,  wahoo,  and  quinine  tree;  the  last  name  being  due  to  its  bitter  bark. 
It  grows  from  Canada  to  Florida,  and  west  to  New  Mexico,  and  seldom 
exceeds  twenty  feet  in  height.  Baretta  (Helietta  parvijolia)  which 
occurs  as  a  small  tree  in  southern  Texas,  is  a  near  relative.  Torchwood 
(Amyris  maritima),  so  named  because  of  its  fine  properties  as  fuel, 
grows  in  southern  Florida,  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  forty  feet  and 
a  diameter  of  one.  Canotia  (Canotia  holacantha)  is  a  small,  scarce  tree 
of  Arizona  and  California  and  has  fine-grained,  rich  brown  wood. 

Nannyberry  (Viburnum  prunifolium),  known  as  black  ha'w,  sloe, 
sheepberry,  and  stagbush,  grows  from  Connecticut  to  Oklahoma  and  is 
usually  a  shrub  which  springs  up  along  highways  and  hedges,  but  it 
sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  twenty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eight  inches. 
It  is  valuable  in  some  localities  in  the  manufacture  of  canes  and  um- 


702  American  Forest  Trees 

brella  sticks.  Rusty  nannyberry  {Viburnum  rufotomentosum)  is  a 
similar  species,  but  attains  a  larger  size,  and  grows  from  Virginia  to 
Texas.  The  wood  may  be  known  by  its  disagreeable  odor.  Sheepberry 
(Vihernum  lentago)  has  a  more  northern  range,  from  Quebec 
to  Saskatchewan,  and  south  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia. 

Blue  Elder  (Sambucus  glauca)  is  one  of  three  tree  elders  in  the 
United  States,  the  others  being  Mexican  elder  (Sambucus  mexicana)  and 
red-berried  elder  {Sambucus  callicarpa).  They  are  ornamental  rather 
than  useful.  The  three  species  occur  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  largest 
recorded  size  of  an  elder  was  forty  feet  high  and  twenty-eight  inches  in 
diameter.     Its  age  was  about  fifty  years. 

Fringe  Tree  {Chionanthus  mrginica)  is  known  also  as  white  fringe, 
American  fringe,  white  ash,  old  man's  beard,  flowering  ash,  and  sun- 
flower tree.  Its  natural  range  extends  from  Pennsylvania  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Texas,  but  it  has  been  widely  planted  in  this  country  and 
Europe.  It  is  seldom  more  than  twenty  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in 
diameter.  The  bark  possesses  medicinal  value.  Devilwood  {Osman- 
thus  americanus)  belongs  to  the  same  family,  but  to  a  different  genus. 
It  grows  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana.  The 
largest  trunks  are  a  foot  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high.  The  wood  is 
strong,  heavy,  hard,  dark  brown,  and  difficult  to  work. 

Black  Ironwood  {Rhamnidium  fcrreum)  of  Florida  is  among  the 
heaviest,  probably  is  the  heaviest,  wood  of  the  United  States.  It 
weighs  81.14  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  when  a  hundred  pounds  of  the 
wood  is  burned,  it  leaves  eight  pounds  of  ashes — the  highest  in  ash  of  all 
woods  of  the  United  States.  Its  fuel  value  is  very  high.  Trees  are 
small,  seldom  more  than  thirty  feet  high  and  six  inches  in  diameter. 
Bluewood  {Condalia  obovata)  is  a  related  Texas  species,  called  also  log- 
wood and  purple  haw.  It  produces  heavy,  hard,  close-grained  wood, 
light  red  in  color.  Trees  six  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty-five  feet 
high  are  fully  up  to  the  average.  Along  the  lower  Rio  Grande  it  forms 
dense,  tangled  thickets.  Red  ironwood  {Reynosia  latifolia)  of  southern 
Florida  belongs  to  a  related  species,  and  is  sometimes  called  darling 
plum,  because  its  purple  fruit  is  edible.  The  tree  is  small,  the  wood 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  of  rich  brown  color.  White  ironwood  {Hypelate 
trijoliata)  belongs  to  a  different  family.  It  occurs  in  Florida  where  trees 
are  sometimes  thirty-five  feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 
The  heavy,  hard,  rich  brown  wood  is  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
and  is  used  for  fence  posts,  handles,  and  boats.  Inkwood  {Exoihea 
paniculata)  is  of  the  same  family  as  white  ironwood  but  of  a  different 
genus.  It  is  also  a  Florida  species  and  is  known  in  some  localities  as 
ironwood.     The  tree  is  occasionally  a  foot  in  diameter  and  forty  feet 


American  Forest  Trees  703 

high,  wood  very  hard,  heavy,  and  strong,  and  bright  red  in  color.  It  is 
used  by  boat  builders,  for  wharfs,  and  as  handle  wood. 

Cinnamon  Bark  {Canella  winterana),  also  called  whitewood  and 
wild  cinnamon,  is  a  south  Florida  species  seldom  more  than  twenty-five 
feet  high  and  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  exceedingly  heavy, 
hard,  and  strong,  and  of  dark  reddish-brown  color.  The  wild  cinnamon 
bark  of  commerce  comes  from  this  tree. 

JOEWOOD  (Jaquinia  armillaris)  grows  in  the  Florida  everglades. 
The  dark  and  beautiful  medullary  rays  of  this  wood  may  sometime  make 
it  valuable  for  turnery  and  small  novelties.  Trunks  seldom  exceed  six 
or  seven  inches  in  diameter.  Marlberry  (Icacorea  paniculata)  belongs 
in  the  same  family  with  joewood.  Trunks  are  small,  but  the  hard,  rich 
brown  wood  is  beautifully  marked  with  dark  medullary  rays. 

Crabwood  (Gymnanthes  lucida)  is  known  chiefly  by  the  fine  canes 
made  of  it.  The  tree  occiurs  in  southern  Florida  where  it  is  sometimes 
known  as  poisonwood.  It  is  dark  brown,  streaked  with  yellow. 
Trunks  more  than  eight  inches  in  diameter  are  unusual.  Manchineel 
{Hippomanc  mancinella)  is  of  the  same  family,  and  occurs  in  Florida. 
The  wood  is  light  and  soft. 

Singleleaf  Pinon  {Pinus  monophylla).  This  is  the  only  pine  in 
this  country  with  single  needles.  They  are  one  and  one-half  inches 
long,  and  are  curved  like  the  old  fashioned  sewing  awl  used  by  shoe- 
makers. The  needles  fall  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  years.  The  cones 
are  one  and  one-half  or  two  and  one-half  inches  long.  The  trees  are 
small,  averaging  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high  and  eight  or  twelve  inches  in 
diameter.  Its  range  covers  portions  of  Utah,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and 
California,  but  it  occupies  dry,  sterile  regions  as  nearly  under  desert 
conditions  as  can  be  found  in  this  country.  The  tree  maintains  a  foot- 
hold on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  at  an  altitude 
of  9,000  feet  and  it  descends  into  the  Colorado  desert  in  California  at  an 
elevation  of  2,000  feet.  It  endures  winter  cold  below  zero  on  the  moun- 
tains, and  summer  temperature  of  122  in  the  Mojave  desert.  It  is  fitted 
to  live  in  a  dry,  sterile  region.  The  leaves  are  small  and  the  branches 
bear  few  of  them.  The  thin  foliage  uses  little  water,  which  is  a  fortunate 
circumstance,  for  there  is  little  to  use.  Slow  growth  is  the  result.  The 
trunk  often  adds  less  than  an  inch  to  its  diameter  in  twenty  years.  The 
trees  form  very  open  forest,  resembling  old  orchards,  ana  the  greenness 
usually  associated  with  pine  landscapes  is  generally  wanting.  The 
singleleaf  pine  has  filled  an  important  place  in  the  development  of  the 
region,  and  furnishes  an  example  of  the  great  service  which  a  small, 
crooked  tree  can  give  when  it  is  the  only  one  to  be  had.  Mines  worth 
many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  worked  with  little  of  any  other  wood. 


704  American  Forest  Trees 

This  has  been  the  fuel  for  the  kitchen,  the  engine  house,  the  blacksmith 
shop.  It  has  supplied  the  props,  posts,  stulls,  and  lagging  for  the 
underground  operations.  Fences  for  stock  corrals,  sheds,  stables, 
cabins,  and  bridges  have  been  constructed  of  the  small,  crooked  trunks 
and  the  distorted  limbs,  when  no  other  wood  could  be  had  in  fifty  or  a 
hundred  miles.  Extensive  tracts  have  been  cut  clean  in  the  vicinity  of 
mines.  The  product  of  the  singleleaf  pine  forest  cannot  be  measured  in 
board  or  log  feet,  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  trunks  and  branches, 
but  by  the  cord.  The  wood  is  medium  heavy,  rather  high  in  fuel  value, 
very  weak,  brittle,  and  soft.  The  resin  passages  are  few  and  small, 
color  yellow  or  light  brown,  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  In  contact  with 
the  soil  the  wood  is  not  durable,  but  its  principal  use  has  been  in  a  very 
dry  climate,  and  it  lasts  well  there.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  nut 
pines. 

It  produces  enormous  crops  which  are  larger  some  years  than  others. 
John  Muir  believed  that  the  singleleaf  pinon's  annual  nut  yield  surpassed 
California's  yield  of  wheat.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  nut  crop  is  ever 
put  to  use  by  man.  Scattered  over  mountains,  mesas,  and  deserts, 
100,000  square  miles  in  extent,  most  of  the  nuts  fall  and  decay,  though 
the  animals  of  the  rocks  and  sands,  and  the  birds  of  the  air  live  on  them 
while  they  last.  The  Indians  of  the  region  long  looked  upon  the  nut 
crop,  as  the  Egyptians  upon  the  overflow  of  the  Nile — a  guarantee 
against  famine.  The  Indians  are  not  so  dependent  on  the  nuts  now  as 
formerly  because  scattered  settlements  throughout  the  region  supply 
other  sources  of  food.  Many  nuts  are  still  gathered,  and  are  sold  in 
stores  from  San  Francisco  to  Denver.  They  look  like  peanuts,  but  are 
richer  in  oil,  and  if  eaten  raw  they  speedily  cloy  the  appetite.  The 
Indians  usually  roast  them,  and  frequently  crush  them  into  meal. 
When  the  harvest  is  ripe  the  Indians  gather  from  all  sides  and  camp 
during  a  month  or  more,  thrash  the  cones  from  the  trees  with  poles, 
extract  the  nuts,  and  keep  up  the  operation  until  all  present  needs  are 
supplied,  and  every  available  basket  is  filled  for  future  use.  The  pack- 
horses  and  burros  of  the  mining  country  in  Nevada  where  this  pine  grows, 
acquire  a  liking  for  the  nuts.  They  are  as  nourishing  as  oats,  and  the 
pack  animals  like  them  better.  Indians  do  considerable  business 
collecting  the  nuts  and  selling  them  by  the  gunny  sack  to  pack  trains,  for 
horse  feed.  A  single  Indian  will  sometimes  gather  thirty  or  forty 
bushels,  for  which  he  can  get  a  dollar  a  bushel  when  he  has  carried  them 
to  market. 

The  singleleaf  pine's  future  will  be  about  as  its  past  has  been,  as 
far  as  can  now  be  foreseen.  Little  planting  will  ever  be  done,  nor  is  it 
necessary.     Nature  plants  all  that  the  sterile  soil  will  support.     It  is  of 


American  Forest  Trees  705 

too  slow  growth  to  tempt  the  forester.  A  centtiry  is  required  to  pro- 
duce a  fence  post,  and  200  years  for  a  crosstie.  Forest  fires  do  little 
injury,  for  the  ground  is  generally  so  bare  that  fire  dies  out  of  its  own 
accord  in  a  short  distance.  The  tree  can  never  be  planted  much  for 
ornament.  Even  if  it  would  grow  outside  of  its  dry  habitat,  it  possesses 
no  more  beauty  than  a  half-dead  apple  tree  in  a  neglected  orchard.  The 
trunks  resemble  mesquite  in  Texas;  but  the  Texas  tree  is  redeemed  by 
the  beauty  of  its  foliage  in  summer,  while  the  foliage  of  the  singleleaf 
pine  is  so  pale  and  thin  that  it  attracts  no  attention. 

CAROLINA  Hemlock  (Tsiiga  caroliniana)  is  of  far  less  importance 
than  its  northern  neighbor  which  goes  south  along  the  Appalachian 
mountains  to  meet  it.  The  two  species  mingle  on  the  mountain  tops 
from  southwestern  Virginia  to  northern  Georgia.  The  Carolina  hemlock 
is  usually  confined  to  altitudes  2,500  or  3,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
prefers  rocky  banks  of  streams.  It  does  not  usually  occur  in  dense 
stands  of  even  moderate  size,  as  the  northern  hemlock  does.  A  few  trees 
in  clumps  or  scattered  solitary  represent  its  habit  of  growth.  Typical 
development  of  the  species  occurs  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Savannah 
river  in  South  Carolina.  For  a  long  time  this  hemlock  and  its  northern 
relative  were  supposed  to  be  the  same.  Botanists  did  not  formerly 
separate  them,  and  the  mountaineers  do  not  generally  do  so  now.  There 
are  several  differences,  however,  which  may  be  observed  upon  close 
examination,  and  by  comparing  the  two  species.  The  Carolina  hem- 
lock's leaves  have  more  rows  of  stomata  and  therefore  are  a  little  whiter 
on  the  under  side.  The  leaves  are  also  longer,  and  the  cones  are  larger. 
The  tree  does  not  attain  the  dimensions  of  the  northern  species,  its 
average  size  being  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  two  or  less  in  diameter. 
It  is  not  abundant,  and  has  never  been  and  never  can  be  much  used  for 
commercial  purposes.  It  is  an  attractive  park  tree  and  has  been  widely 
planted. 

Limber  Pine  (Pinus  flextlis)  owes  its  name  to  its  long,  drooping 
branches.  It  is  often  called  white  pine.  Rocky  Mountain  white  pine, 
western  white  pine,  and  limber  twig  pine.  It  is  not  the  tree  usually 
called  western  white  pine  {Pinus  monticola),  but  is  a  high  mountain 
species,  ranging  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Montana  to  western 
Texas;  it  grows  also  on  the  mountains  of  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  and 
California.  The  upper  limit  of  its  range  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  12,000 
feet.  It  descends  to  an  altitude  of  only  4,000  feet  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  forms  open,  scattered  stands  of  round-topped  trees  of  little 
commercial  value,  and  is  usually  associated  with  western  yellow  pine  or 
Rocky  Mountain  cedar.  At  altitudes  of  8,500  or  10,000  feet  it  is  more 
stunted,  and  associates  with  Lyall  larch  and  other  high  mountain 


706  American  Forest  Trees 

species.  Intermediate  between  its  lower  and  its  higher  belts  it  produces 
a  little  merchantable  lumber.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  medium  brittle, 
of  slow  growth  and  with  narrow  bands  of  summerwood.  The  resin 
passages  are  large  and  numerous.  The  wood,  when  a  choice  trunk  is 
found,  resembles  that  of  eastern  white  pine ;  but  generally  the  trunks  are 
inferior  in  size  and  form.  The  heartwood  is  light,  clear  yellow,  the  sap- 
wood  nearly  white.  Trees  range  in  height  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet,  and 
one  to  three  in  diameter.  A  sawlog  ten  feet  long  is  about  as  much  as 
can  be  had  from  a  trunk,  and  of  course,  when  compared  with  commercial 
trees,  it  holds  a  low  place ;  but  in  some  remote  mountain  regions  it  is  the 
principal  wood  available,  and  to  that  extent  it  is  of  importance.  When 
green,  the  wood  is  very  heavy,  and  sometimes  will  sink.  It  is  used  for 
posts  and  in  the  mines.  The  farmer  seasons  posts  on  the  stump.  He 
peels  the  trees  six  months  before  cutting  them.  They  immediately 
exude  resin  over  the  whole  peeled  surface,  and  the  tree  quickly  dies.  At 
the  end  of  six  months  the  trunk  is  seasoned,  and  is  cut  for  posts.  The 
ends  are  smeared  with  resin.  Such  posts  have  lasted  twenty  years  with 
little  decay.  Railroads  make  ties  of  fire-killed  limber  pine.  Charcoal 
burners  use  it  also.  The  growing  trees  resist  the  fumes  of  copper  smelters 
better  than  any  other  species  associated  with  it. 

Parry  Pinon  {Pinus  quadrifolia).  The  names  by  which  this  tree  is  known  in 
the  region  where  it  grows  indicate  one  of  its  leading  features,  a  bearer  of  nuts.  It  is 
called  nut  pine,  Parry's  nut  pine,  pinon,  and  Mexican  pinon.  The  nuts  exceed  half  an 
inch  in  length,  are  reddish -brown,  and  the  wings  narrow  and  small.  They  cannot 
carry  the  nuts  far,  and  the  species  is  not  spreading.  Reproduction  takes  place 
beneath  the  parent  tree,  and  frequently  the  old  trunk  dies  without  having  succeeded 
in  planting  a  single  seed  to  perpetuate  the  species.  The  nuts  are  nutritious,  and  are 
eagerly  sought  by  birds,  rodents,  and  larger  animals,  including  human  beings.  The 
cones  are  seldom  two  inches  long,  and  the  leaves  are  little  more  than  an  inch.  They 
are  usually  in  clusters  of  four,  and  fall  the  third  year.  The  tree's  characteristics 
betray  its  environment.  It  is  fitted  for  dry,  sterile  situations.  Its  abnormally  large 
seeds  provide  food  for  the  seedling  until  it  can  get  its  rootlets  deep  enough  in  the  poor 
soil  to  get  a  start.  The  Parry  pinon's  range  is  confined  to  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  California  and  to  Lower  California  where  it  occupies  arid  mesas  and  low 
mountain  slopes.  It  is  common  on  Santa  Rosa  mountains,  California,  at  an  elevation 
of  5,000  feet.  It  is  too  small  to  be  worth  much  for  lumber,  the  usual  height  being  less 
than  thirty  feet,  the  trunk  diameter  from  ten  to  sixteen  inches.  The  wood  is  medium 
heavy,  weak,  low  in  elasticity,  but  rather  high  in  fuel  value.  The  annual  rings  are 
very  narrow,  and  the  thin  bands  of  summerwood  are  not  conspicuous.  It  is  one  of 
the  slowest-growing  of  the  pines,  and  probably  it  is  surpassed  in  that  respect  by 
lodgepole  pine  alone.  Its  only  uses  are  fuel,  a  few  fence  posts,  and  small  ranch 
timbers. 

Knobcone  Pine  (Pinus  attenuaia).  This  pine  is  known  as  prickly-cone  pine, 
sun-loving  pine,  sunny-slope  pine,  narrow-cone  pine,  and  knobcone  pine.  Its  leaves 
are  in  clusters  of  three,  and  are  four  and  five  inches  long.  The  cones  are  from  three 
to  six  inches  long.  They  often  adhere  to  the  branches  thirty  or  forty  years,  and  may 


American  Forest  Trees  707 

become  entirely  overgrown  and  hidden  by  bark  and  wood — hence  the  name  knobcone. 
The  wood  is  Ught,  soft,  weak,  brittle;  the  growth  is  slow  and  the  annual  rings  are 
narrow.  The  resin  passages  are  large  and  numerous.  The  average  height  of  the 
mature  knobcone  pine  is  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet,  and  the  trunk  diameter  eight 
to  twelve  inches.  It  grows  on  dry  mountain  regions  of  California  and  Oregon,  and  is 
not  a  valuable  timber  tree.  A  little  is  occasionally  sawed  in  small  dimensions,  but 
the  principal  use  is  for  mine  props.  It  is  short  lived,  even  when  it  does  not  fall  a 
victim  to  accidents.  In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  nature,  it  prepares  for 
early  death  by  bearing  seeds  when  only  five  or  six  feet  high.  The  cones  act  as 
storing  places  for  seed,  sometimes  during  the  whole  life  of  the  tree.  Thus  a 
knobcone  pine  may  hold  in  its  tightly  closed  cones  the  seeds  produced  during  the 
tree's  whole  life.  When  death  overtakes  it,  the  cones  open  and  scatter  the  seeds. 
The  accumulated  crops  may  total  three  or  four  pounds  of  seeds.  Fire  usually  kills 
the  trees,  but  the  heat  is  generally  not  sufficient  to  bum  the  cones.  When  they  open 
soon  after  the  fire  has  passed,  they  find  a  bared  mineral  soil  ready  to  receive  them. 
The  knobcone  pine  lives  in  adversity  and  usually  dies  by  violence. 

Arizona  Pine  {Pinus  arizonica).  This  tree  is  confined  to  the  mountains  of 
southern  Arizona  at  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  the  prevailing 
pine  near  the  summit  of  the  Santa  Catalina  mountains.  Much  of  the  timber  is  of 
small  size  and  yields  only  inferior  lumber;  but  when  larger  trunks  are  obtainable, 
the  lumber  grades  with  western  yellow  pine,  and  goes  to  market  with  it.  Arizona 
pine  is  medium  light,  soft,  not  strong,  rather  brittle,  of  slow  growth,  with  the  summer- 
wood  comparatively  broad  and  very  resinous;  color,  Ught  red  or  often  yellow,  the 
sapwood  lighter  yellow  or  white.  The  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  five  and  are  tufted  at 
the  ends  of  the  branches.  They  are  from  five  to  seven  inches  long,  and  are  deciduous 
the  third  year. 

Dwarf  Juniper  (Juniperus  communis)  is  an  interesting  tree  because  its  range 
practically  runs  round  the  world  in  the  north  temperate  and  frigid  zones,  but  in  the 
United  States  the  only  reported  use  of  the  wood  is  in  southern  Illinois  where  it 
grows  on  the  limestone  hills  and  is  occasionally  cut  for  fence  posts.  In  nearly  all 
other  parts  of  its  range  in  this  country  it  is  Uttle  more  than  a  shrub.  Some  trees 
with  a  spread  of  limbs  twenty  feet  across  are  only  three  or  four  feet  high.  The  seeds 
mature  slowly,  not  ripening  until  the  third  year;  and  they  often  hang  a  year  or  two 
after  ripening.  The  wood  is  narrow-ringed,  hard,  very  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil,  of  light  brown  color,  with  pale  sapwood.  In  Europe  the  aromatic  fruit  of  this 
tree  is  used  in  large  quantities  to  flavor  gin,  but  there  is  no  report  that  it  has  been  so 
employed  in  this  country.  In  the  United  States  it  occurs  in  Pennsylvania  and 
northward,  and  northward  from  Illinois,  and  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains 
north  of  Texas.  It  occurs  on  the  Pacific  coast  north  of  California.  It  grows  from 
Greenland  to  Alaska,  and  through  Siberia,  and  northern  Europe. 

Drooping  Juniper  {Juniperus  flaccida)  is  confined  in  the  United  States  to  the 
Chisos  mountains  in  western  Texas,  but  grows  in  Mexico.  The  tree  attains  a  height 
of  thirty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  one.  [Its  name  refers  to  its  graceful  branches.  It  has 
been  planted  in  this  country  less  than  in  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa.  The 
bark  is  light  cinnamon-brown,  and  easily  separates  in  loose,  papery  scales.  The 
lumberman  will  never  go  far  to  procure  drooping  juniper  logs.  They  are  too  small, 
scarce,  and  of  form  too  poor.  The  wood  has  the  usual  characteristics  of  the  junipers 
which  grow  in  western  mountains.  It  looks  more  like  alligator  juniper  than  any 
other.  In  Texas  it  goes  to  the  lathe  to  be  manufactured  into  candlesticks,  pin  boxes, 
picture  molding,  and  other  articles  of  turnery. 


708  American  Forest  Trees 

Utah  Juniper  {Juniperus  utahensis)  is  known  also  as  juniper,  desert  juniper, 
and  western  red  cedar.  The  last  name  is  properly  applied  to  a  different  tree  in 
Washington  and  Oregon.  The  Utah  juniper  occupies  the  great  basin  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  particularly  in  Utah,  Nevada,  Cahfornia, 
Arizona,  and  Colorado.  It  thrives  best  about  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  descends 
to  5,000  feet  or  less.  It  is  a  desert  tree,  usually  small,  often  a  mere  shrub,  but 
occasionally  attaining  a  height  of  twenty  feet  or  more  and  a  diameter  of  one  or  two. 
The  trunk  is  irregular  in  shape,  and  is  generally  deeply  fluted.  The  wood  is  light 
brown  in  color,  though  it  varies  greatly  in  different  specimens,  and  even  in  the  same 
tree.  The  sapwood  is  thick  and  nearly  white.  The  tree  has  not  been  much  used 
except  for  fence  posts  and  fuel.  The  Indians  of  the  region  eat  the  berries  raw  or 
bake  them  in  cakes. 


Library 


INDEX  TO  COMMON  NAMES 


Acacia 

African  mahogany 

Ailanthus 

Alaska  cypress 

Alaska  pine 

Alder 

Algaroba 

Alleghany  sloe 

Alligator  juniper 

Alligator- wood 

Almondleaf  willow 

Aloe-leaf  yucca 

Alpine  fir  

Alpine  larch 

Alpine  spruce 

Alpine  western  spruce 

Alpine  whitebark  pine  .... 
Alternate-leaved  dogwood. 

Alvord  oak 

Amabilis  fir 

American  apple 

American  arborvitse 

American  ash 

American  crab 

American  fringe 

American  holly 

American  larch 

American  linden 

American  planertree 

American  smoke-tree  .... 

Andromeda 

Angelica-tree 

Ant's  wood 

Apple  haw 

Arborvitse 

Arizona  cork  fir 

Arizona  cypress 

Arizona  madrona 

Arizona  palm 

Arizona  pine 

Arizona  spruce 

Arizona  sycamore 

Arizona  white  oak 

Arrow-wood 

Ash-leaved  maple 

Aspen 

Aspen-leaf 

August  plum 

Bald  cypress 

Balm  of  Gilead 145,  667, 

Balm  of  Gilead  fir 

Balsam 135,  136,  151,  166, 

Balsam  fir  145, 151, 

Balsam  poplar 

Baltimore  oak 


.667, 


Baretta.  .  .  . 
Barren  oak.. 


Barren  scrub  oak 283 

Bartram  oak 322 

Basket  elm "   393 

Basket  oak 208,  229 

Basket  willow '  472 

Basswood 537 

Bat-tree 494 

Bayberry [   698 

Bay  poplar 337 

Bay-tree 529 

Beaded  locust 555 

Bearberry 646,  698 

Bear  oak '315 

Bearwood '   ggg 

Beaver-tree 495 

Bebb  willow '   471 

Beech ,'.'/,'_  625 

Beetree 637 

Bell-tree ,',]'   601 

Bellvvood   602 

Berlandier  ash 418 

Big  buckeye 649 

Big-bud   .' 363 

Big-bud  hickory 363 

Bigcone  pine gg 

Bigcone  spruce 172 

Big  Cottonwood 667 

Bigelow  willow 472 

Big  hickory  nut 363 

Big  laurel 494 

Bigleaf  laurel 507 

Bigleaf  maple  439 

Big  pine 31 

Big  shellbark 369 

Bigtree 175 

Big  white  birch 583 

Biltmore  ash  424 

Birch 565 

Bird  cherry 619 

Bishop's  pine 69 

Bitter  cherry 616 

Bitter  hickory 361 

Bitternut [   357 

Bittemut  hickory 361 

Bitter  pecan 361,  375 

Bitter  walnut 361 

Bitter  waternut 374 

Bitterwood 676 

Black  ash 415,  416,  423,  445 

Blackbark  pine 75 

Black  birch ,565,  577,  580 

Black  calabash  475 

Black  cherry 613 

Black  Cottonwood 667,  669,  679 

Black  gum 159,  331 

Black  haw 460 

Black  hickory 364,  367,  696,  699 

Black  iron%vood 700 


Blackjack 283 

Black  jack  oak 291 

Black  larch   SO 

Black  limetree 637 

Black  locust 535,  541 

Black  mangrove 688 

Black  maple 447 

Black  mulberry 513 

Black  oak 259,  260,  271,  277 

Black  olivetree 688 

Black  pine 63,  67,  70,  75 

Black  poplar 681 

Black  slash  pine 55 

Black  sloe 621 

Black  spruce 129 

Black  thorn 459 

Blacktree 688 

Black  walnut 343 

Black  willow 469 

Black  wood 688 

Bleeding-heart  tree 500 

BHster  pine 145,  151 

Blue  ash 417.422 

Blue  beech 627 

Blue  birch 565,  577, 585 

Blue  blossoms 698 

Blue  dog\vood 526 

Blue  elder 700 

Blue  jack  oak 285 

Blue  myrtle 698 

Blue  oak 205,  213, 226 

Blue  spruce 136 

Bluet 508 

Bluewood 700 

Bodark 511 

Bodock 511 

Bog  spruce 130 

Bois  d'arc 511 

Bois  inconnu 405 

Bottom  shellbark 369 

Bow-wood 511 

Box  elder 445,601 

Box  oak 223 

Box  white  oak 223 

Boxwood  523 

Bractedfir 157 

Brash  oak 223 

Brewer  oak  220 

Bristlecone  fir 171 

Bristlecone  pine 19,    38 

Broadfruit  yucca 693 

Broadleaf  maple 439 

Broadleaf  willow 472 

Broom  hickory 367 

Brown  ash 423 

Brown  hickory 367 

Brown  pine 43 

Buckeye 649 

Buckthorn  bumelia 696 

Buckwheat-tree 502 

BuUace  plimi 621 

Bull  bay 494 

Bull  pine 49,    75 


Bumwood 697 

Burning  bush 499 

Burnwood  502 

Bur  oak 211 

Bustic 696 

Butternut 349 

Buttonball 607 

Buttonwood 607 

Cabbage  palmetto 691 

Cabbage-tree 691 

Cactus 693 

Cajeput 529 

Calico-bush  505 

Calicowood 601 

California  bay-tree 529 

California  black  oak 285 

California  blue  oak 229 

California  box  elder 447 

California  buckeye 649,  651 

California  chestnut  oak 313 

CaUfornia  coffee 698 

California  fan  palm 693 

California  hemlock  spruce 193 

California  holly 645 

Cahfornia  juniper 112 

California  laurel 529,  655 

California  live  oak 307 

California  nutmeg 201 

California  olive 529 

California  post  cedar 109 

California  red  bud 549 

California  red  fir 164 

California  sassafras 529 

California  scrub  oak 237 

California  swamp  pine 69 

California  sycamore 609 

California  tanbark  oak 313 

California  walnut 351 

California  white  oak 249 

California  white  pine 67 

Canada  plum 621 

Canadian  Judas  tree 548 

Canadian  red  pine 61 

Canoe  birch 583 

Canoe  cedar 115 

Canoewood 487 

Canotia 699 

Canyon  birch 580 

Canyon  Uve  oak 308 

Carolina  cherry 620 

Carolina  hemlock 703 

Carolina  pine 49 

Carolina  poplar 667 

Cascara  buckthorn 698 

Cascara  sagrada 698 

Catalpa 475 

Catawba 475 

Catawba  rhododendron 507 

Cat  spruce 130 

Cedar 91,97,109,118 

Cedar  eUn 380,  392 

Cedar  pine 57 

Cereuses 693 


Chalky  leucana 562 

Chapman  oak  208 

Chattahoochee  pine 202 

Check  pine 70 

Checkered-barked  juniper Ill 

Cherry  birch  565,  580 

Chestnut 631 

Chestnut  oak 241,  313 

Chickasaw  plum  622 

Chihuahua  pine 76 

Chinaberry 665 

China-tree  664 

Chinquapin  634 

Chinquapin  oak 247 

Chittamwood 602 

Cholla 691 

Cigartree 476 

Cinnamon  bark 701 

Cinnamon  oak 286 

Clammy  locust 537 

Cli£F  ehn 385 

Cockspur  459 

Cocoa  plum 622 

Coffeebean 547 

Coffee-berry 698 

Coffeenut 547 

CoSeetree 547 

Colorado  blue  spruce 136 

Common  catalpa 475,  477 

Common  thorn 459 

Cornel 523 

Coral  bean 554 

Coral  sumach 697 

Cork-barked  Douglas  spruce 169 

Cork  elm 380,  385,  399 

Cork  pine 19 

Corkwood 423 

Corky  ehn  399 

Cotton  gum 337 

Cottonwood 667,  673 

Cotton-tree 667 

Coulter  pine 68 

CowUcks 604 

Cow  oak 229 

Crab  453 

Crab  apple 453 

Crabwood 701 

Crack  willow 472 

Creeping  pine 37 

Cuban  pine 45 

Cucumber 481 

Cucumber-tree 487 

Currant-tree 451 

Custard  apple 640 

Cut-leaved  maple 445 

Cypress 70,139 

Dahoon  holly 645 

Darling  plum 700 

Darlington  oak 295 

Date  plum 517 

Deciduous  holly 646 

Deer  tongue 507 

Delmar  pine 64 


Desert  juniper 705 

Desert  willow 477 

Devil's  claw 544 

Devil's  tongue  cactus 694 

Devilwood 700 

Digger  pine 75 

Dilly 696 

Doctor  gum 697 

Dogwood 523 

Double  fir 151 

Double  spruce 130 

Douglas  fir 169 

Douglas  spruce 169 

Douglas-tree  169 

Down-cone 166 

Downy  basswood  639 

Downy-cone  subalpine  fir 166 

Downy  poplar 669 

Drooping  juniper  705 

Drunmiond  maple 436 

Duck  oak 320 

Durand  oak 208 

Dwarf  ash   412 

Dwarf  chestnut  oak 247 

Dwarf  cypress 184 

Dwarf  juniper 705 

Dwarf  maple 442,  446 

Dwarf  marine  pine 69 

Dwarf  rose  bay 507 

Dwarf  sumach 696 

Dwarf  walnut 351 

Dyer's  oak 271 

Ebony 517 

Elder 700 

Elderleafash 416 

Emory  oak 238 

Engelmann  oak 231 

Engelmann  spruce 135 

English  cornel 526 

English  dog^vood 526 

English  hawthorn 460 

European  alder 592 

Evergreen  buckthorn 698 

Evergreen  cherry 620 

Evergreen  magnolia 481,  493 

Eysenhardtia 526 

False  acacia 535 

False  box-dogwood 523 

False  mahogany 531 

False  shagbark 346 

Fanleaf  palm 693 

Farkleberry 508 

Fat  pine 43 

Feather-cone  red  fir 157 

Feather-leaf 97 

Fetid  buckeye 651 

Fetid  yew 202 

Fighting  wood 199 

Finger-cone  pine 25 

Fir  balsam 151 

Fire  cherry 619 

F'irewood 502 

Fir  pine  145 


rv 


Florida  ash 412 

Florida  basswood t>39 

Florida  boxwood 501 

Florida  buttonwood 688 

Florida  cat's  claw 538 

Florida  mahogany 531 

Florida  maple 435 

Florida  pine 43 

Florida  torreya 202 

Florida  yew 201 

Flowering  ash 700 

Flowering  cornel 523 

Flowering  dogwood 523 

Flowering  willow 477 

Forked-leaf  blackjack 283 

Forked-leaf  oak 217,  283 

Forked-leaf  white  oak 217 

Four-winged  halesia 601 

Foxtail  pine 19,38,39 

Fragrant  crab 453 

Fraser  fir 151 

Fraser  umbrella 481,  495 

Fremont  Cottonwood 667,  670 

Fremontia 400 

FrijoUto 554 

Fringe  ash 412 

Fringetree 700 

Gambeloak 214 

Garden  wild  plum 622 

Georgia  oak 267 

Georgia  pine 43 

Giant  arborvitse 115 

Giant  cactus  693 

Gigantic  cedar 115 

Glaucus  willow 472 

Glossyleaf  willow   496 

Golden  cup  oak 308 

Golden  fir 164 

Goldenleaf  chinquapin 633 

Gooseberry 508 

Goose  plum 621,622 

Gopherwood 553 

Gowen  cypress 184 

Grand  fir  163 

Gray  birch 585 

Gray  elm 380 

Gray  pine 75 

Great  California  fir 163 

Great  laurel 494,  505 

Great  western  larch 86 

Green  ash 422 

Greenbark  acacia 555 

Green  osier 526 

Gregg  ash 411 

Guayacon 698 

Gum 325 

Gumbo  limbo 676 

Gum  elastic 696 

Gum  stretch  it 696 

Gum-tree 325 

Gyminda  49 

Hackberry 403 

Hackmatack 80,   86 


Hack-tree 403 

Hairy  balm  of  Gilead 674 

Hardbark  hickory 363 

Hardback 595 

Hard  maple 427 

Hard  pine 43,  61,    63 

Hardshell 363 

Hardwoods 4 

Hardy  catalpa 475 

Haw 459 

Hawthorn 459 

Healing  balsam 151 

Heart-leaved  thorn 460 

Heart  pine 43 

Heartwood 5 

Heavy  pine 67 

Heavy-wooded  pine 67 

Hedge 511 

Hedge-tree 511 

Hemlock 187 

Hemlock  spruce   187,  193,  195 

Hercules'  club 676,  699 

Hickory 357 

Hickory  elm 385 

Hickory  oak 308 

Hickory  pine 38,    52 

Hickory  poplar 487 

High-ground  willow  oak 286 

Highland  oak 296 

Hog  haw 459 

Hog  plum 621,697 

Holly 643 

Holly-leaf  cherry 616 

Honey  locust 535,  541,  559 

Honey-shucks  locust   541 

Honey  pod 559 

Hooker's  oak 249 

Hooker  willow 472 

Hoop  ash 403,415 

Hooptree 415 

Hop  hornbeam 595 

Hoptree 699 

Hornbeam 595,  627 

Horsebean 549 

Horse  chestnut 651 

Horse  plum 621 

Huajillo 538 

Huckleberry 508 

Huckleberry  oak 309 

Incense  cedar 109 

Indian  bean 476 

Indian  cherry 451 

Indian  pear 451 

Indigo  thorn 556 

Inkwood 700 

Iowa  crab 454 

Iron  oak 223,308 

Ironwood. .  .501,  502,  559,  595, 627,  696 

Ivy 505 

Jack  oak 319 

Jack  pine 69 

Jamaica  dogwood 626, 650 

Jeffrey  pine , 75 


Jersey  pine 57 

Joewood 701 

Joshua-tree 693 

Judas-tree 548 

Juneberry 451 

Jumper 70,  91,  99, 109,  US,  706 

Juniper-bush 91 

Juniper  cedar 99 

Juniper-tree 403 

Kalmia 505 

Kenai  birch 565,  585 

Kingnut 369 

Kingtree 51 

Knobcone  pine 704 

Knowlton  hornbeam   598 

Koeberlinia 697 

Lanceleaf  alder 592 

Lanceleaf  Cottonwood 667,  670 

Lancewood 657 

Larch  79,165 

Large  buckeye 649 

Largeleaf  umbrella 481,  483 

Large  poplar 675 

Largetooth  aspen 667,  675 

Laurel 494,  505,  507,  529 

Laurel  bay 494 

Laurel  cherry 620 

Laurel-leaved  magnolia 494 

Laurel  oak 295,319 

Laurel'tree 531 

Lea  oak  292 

Leatheileaf  ash 418 

Leatherwood 400,  502 

Leucaena 562 

Leverwood 595 

Lignum-vitae 698 

Lilac 698 

Limber  pine 19,  703 

Limber-twig  pine 703 

Linn 637 

Liquidamber 325 

Little  shagbark 346 

Little  sugar  pine 25 

Little  walnut 351 

Live  oak 253,313 

Loblolly  pine 55 

Locust 535 

Lodgepole  pine 73 

Logwood 700 

Lombardy  poplar 682 

Longcone  pine 68 

Longleaf  pine 43 

Longleaf  service 452 

Longleaf  willow 496 

Longleaved  pine 63 

Longchat 63 

Longshucks  pine 55 

Longstalk  willow 471 

Longstraw  pine 55 

Lovely  fir 165 

Lovely  red  fir  165 

Lowland  spruce  pine 51 

Low  maple 435 


Lyall  willow 496 

Lynn 637 

Mackenzie  willow 472 

Macnab  cypress 178 

Madrona 661 

Magnificent  fir 164 

Magnolia 494 

Mahogany  463,  547 

Mahogany  birch 565 

Manchineel 701 

Mangrove 685 

Manzanita 663 

Maple 439 

Marlberry 701 

Mastic 696 

Maul  oak 308 

May  cherry 451 

May  haw  459 

Meadow  pine 45,    55 

Menzies'  spruce 133 

Mesguite 559,  562 

Mexican  Cottonwood   667,  669 

Mexican  elder 700 

Mexican  madrona 663 

Mexican  mulberry 514 

Mexican  palmetto 692 

Mexican  persimmon 517 

Mexican  pinon 19,  33,  704 

Mexican  walnut 351 

Mexican  white  pine 19 

Michaux  basswood 639 

Mimosa 562 

Minor  species 695 

Missouri  willow 473 

Mocker  nut 356,  363 

Mocker  nut  hickory 363 

Mock  olive 620 

Mock  orange 511,  620 

Mohave  yucca 693 

Monterey  cypress 141 

Monterey  pine 69 

Moose  elm 391 

Moose  maple 435 

Morehus  oak 297 

Mountain  alder 592 

Mountain  ash 411,  454,  675 

Mountain  balsam 151,  166 

Mountain  birch 580 

Mountain  cedar Ill 

Mountain  elm 399 

Mountain  hemlock 195 

Mountain  holly 645 

Mountain  ivy 505 

Mountain  juniper 99 

Mountain  laurel 505,  529 

Mountain  mahogany   199,  465 

Mountain  manchineel 697 

Mountain  maple 435,  441 

Mountain  pine 25 

Mountain  spruce 135 

Mountain  white  oak 213 

Mulberry  513 

Myrtleberry 508 


Myrtle-tree 529 

Myrtle  oak 297 

Nakedvvood 698 

Narrovvberry 699 

Narrowcone  pine 704 

Narrowleaf  Cottonwood 667,  669 

Narrowleaf  crab 453 

Narrowleaf  willow 496 

Native  plum  621 

Necklace  poplar 667 

Netleaf  oak 219 

Nettle-tree 403 

New  England  boxwood 523 

Newcastle  thorn 459 

New  Mexican  locust 537 

New  Mexican  pinon 28 

Noble  fir 157 

Nootka  cypress 121 

North  American  red  spruce 127 

North  Carolina  pine 49 

North  Carolina  shagbark  hickory .   376 

Northern  cork  elm 385 

Northern  spruce  pine 19 

Northern  white  cedar 97 

Norway  pine 61 

Nutmeg  hickory 374 

Nutpine 28,  33,  68,  704 

Nuttall  willow 472 

Oak-barked  cedar Ill 

Obispo  pine 69 

Ohio  buckeye 049,  651 

Oldfield  birch 585 

Oldfield  pine 49 

Old  man's  beard 700 

Olivetree 337 

One-berry 403 

One-seed  juniper 99 

Opossum  wood 601 

Opuntias 694 

Oregon  ash 421 

Oregon  balsam  166 

Oregon  crabapple 454 

Oregon  fir 163 

Oregon  maple 439 

Oregon  oak  235 

Oregon  pine 169 

Oregon  white  oak 235 

Oreodaphne 529 

Overcup  oak 217,  223 

Osage  appletree 511 

Osage  orange 511 

Osier  willow 496 

Pacific  post  oak 235 

Pacific  yew 199 

Pale-leaf  hickory 345 

Palmer  oak  310 

Palms 691 

Palmetto   691 

Palo  bianco 406 

Palo  verde 556 

Paper  birch 565,  583 

Paper  mulberry 514 

Paradise-tree 676 


Parry  nut  pine 19,  704 

Parry  pinon 703 

Parry's  spruce 136 

Patton's  spruce 196 

Peach  oak  313 

Pea-flower  locust 535 

Peawood 602 

Pear  haw 459 

Pear  thorn 459 

Pecan 357,  373 

Pecan  nut 373 

Pecan  tree 373 

Persimmon 517 

Pessimin 517 

Pigeonberry 452,  526 

Pigeon  cherry 619 

Pignut 356,  361,  367 

Pignut  hickory 367 

Pig  walnut 361 

Pin  cherry 619 

Pine 19 

Pink  locust 555 

Pin  oak 208,  247,  301 

Pinon  19,    28 

Pinon  pine 28,    33 

Pin  thorn  ...    459 

Pitch  pine 43,  45,  49,    63 

Planertree  397 

Plane-tree 607 

Plum 621,622 

Poison  dogwood 697 

Poison  elder 697 

Poison  ivy 505 

Poison  laurel 505 

Poison  oak 697 

Poison  sumach  697 

Poisontree 697 

Poisonwood 697,  701 

Pond  apple 640 

Pond  cypress 141 

Pond  pine 57 

Poorfield  pine 49 

Poor  pine 51 

Poplar 487,673 

Poplar-leaved  birch 585 

Popple  487,675 

Poppy  ash 424 

Possum  haw 646 

Possum  oak 320 

Possumwood 517 

Port  Orford  cedar 123 

Post  cedar 103,  109 

Post  locust. 535 

Post  oak 223 

Poverty  birch 585 

Powcohiscora 355 

Price  oak 315 

Pricklecone  pine 69,  704 

Prickly  ash 699 

Prickly  pine 52 

Prickly  spruce 136 

Prince's  pine 70 

Puget  sound  pine 169 


VII 


Pumpkin  ash 

Pumpkin  pine 

Pumpkin-tree  

Punk  oak 

Purple  buckeye 649, 

Purple  dogwood  

Purple  haw  

Pyramidal  magnolia 481, 

Quaking  asp 

Quinine-tree 

Rattlebox 

Red  alder 

Red  ash 

Redbark  fir 

Redbark  pine 

Red  bay 

Red-berried  elder 

Red  birch 

Red-bract  dogwood  

Redbud 

Red  cedar 91, 

Red  elm 393, 

Red  fir 157, 164, 

Red  gum 

Red  haw 457, 459, 

Redheart  hickory 

Red  hickory 

Red  ironwood 

Red  larch 

Red  locust 

Red  maple 

Red  mulberry 

Red  oak 259,  265,  277,  280, 

Red  pine 61, 

Red  plum 

Red  silver  fir 

Red  spruce 

Red  thorn  

Red  titi 

Red  willow 

Redwood 

Retama 

Rhododendron 

River  ash 

River  birch  565, 

River  Cottonwood 

Rock  chestnut  oak 

Rock  elm 380, 

Rock  maple 

Rock  oak 

Rocky  Mountain  juniper 

Rocky  Mountain  oak 219, 

Rocky  Mountain  white  pine 

Rose  bay 

Rosemary  pine 49, 

Royal  palm 

Rum  cherry 

Rusty  nannyberry 

Sadler  oak 

Saffron  plum 

Salad-tree 

Sandbar  willow 

Sand  jack 


Sand  pine 46 

Sapwood  pine 75 

Sargent  palm 692 

Sarvice 451 

Sassafac 655 

Sassafas 655 

Sassafrac  655 

Sassafras 655 

Satinleaf 696 

Satin  walnut 325 

Satinwood 699 

Savice 451,  452 

Savin 91 

Saxifrax 655 

Scaly  bark  hickory 357 

Scarlet  haw 457 

Scarlet  maple 433 

Scarlet  oak 277 

Schott  cactus 694 

Schott  yucca 693 

Screwbean 562 

Screw-pod 562 

Scrub  oak 220,  247,  283 

Scrub  pine 37,  57,    70 

Seaside  alder 592 

Second  growth 357 

Serviceberry 451 

Service-tree 451 

Shadberry  451 

Shagbark  hickor>- 355,  357 

Shasta  red  fir 165 

Shawneewood  476 

She  balsam 151 

Sheepberry 699,  700 

Sheepbush 554 

Sheep  laurel 505 

Shellbark 356,  357 

Shellbark  hickory 369 

Shingle  cedar 115 

Shingle  oak 301,  319 

Shin  oak 208,286 

Shoepeg  maple 433 

Short-flower  mahogany 466 

Shortleaf  pine 49 

Shortleaved  pine 57 

Shortshat 49 

Shrub  willow 496 

Sierra  brownbark  pine 67 

Silktop  palmetto 692 

Silky  w^illow 472 

Silverbell  tree 601,  604 

Silver  fir 159,163,165 

Silverleaf  willow 471 

Silver-leaved  maple 429 

Silver  maple 429 

Silver  pine 145 

Silver  spruce 136,  145 

Silvertop  palmetto 692 

Single-leaf  pinon 19,  701 

Single  spruce 130 

Sir  Joseph  Bank's  pine 70 

Slash  pine 45,  49,    55 

Sitka  alder 592 


vm 


Sitka  spruce 133 

Skunk  spruce 130 

Slippery  elm 380,  391,  400 

Sloe 699 

Small  buckeye 649,  652 

Small  fruit  mountain  ash   454 

Small-leaf  elm 399 

Small-leaf  horsebean 549 

Small  laurel 505 

Small  pignut 346 

Small  pignut  hickory 346 

Small  white  birch 585 

Smooth  cypress 142 

Smooth-leaf  willow 471 

Snowdrop-tree 601,  603 

Soapberry 465 

Soap-tree 465 

Soft  maple 429 

Soft  pine ..19,    25 

Softwoods 4 

Soledad  pine 64 

Sonora  iron  wood 568 

Sophora 555 

Sorrel-tree 507 

Soulard  crab 454 

Sour  gum 337,  339,  507 

Sour  gum  bush 507 

Sour  tupelo 339 

Sourwood 507 

Southern  basswood 639 

Southern  mountain  piae 52 

Southern  red  juniper 94 

Southern  red  oak 265 

Southern  white  cedar 103 

Southern  yellow  pine 43 

Spanish  bayonet 693 

Spanish  dagger 693 

Spanish  moss 256 

Spanish  oak 200,  277,  289 

Spanish  red  oak 289 

Sparkleberry 508 

Spice-tree 529 

Spoon-hutch  507 

Spoonwood 505 

Springwood 7 

Spotted  oak 266,  271,  320 

Spruce 127,169 

Spruce  pine 45,  49,  51,  57,  187 

Spruce-tree 187 

Stackpole  pine 151 

Stagbush  699 

Staghorn  sumach  697 

Star-leaved  gum 325 

Stave  oak 205 

Stiffness  of  wood 11 

Sting-tongue 699 

Stinking  ash 445 

Stinking  buckeye 651 

Stinking  cedar 201,  202 

Stinking  savin 202 

Strength  of  wood 11 

Striped  maple 447 

Stone-seed  Mexican  pinon 33 


Stump  tree 547 

Sugar  ash 445 

Sugarberry 403,  405,  406 

Sugar  maple 427 

Sugar  pine 19,    31 

Sugar-tree  427 

Sumach 696 

Sunmier  haw 458 

Summerwood 7 

Sunflower-tree 700 

Sun-loving  pine 704 

Sunny-slope  pine 704 

Swamp  ash 416, 422 

Swamp  bay 531 

Swamp  cedar 103 

Swamp  chestnut  oak 229 

Swamp  Cottonwood 667,  669 

Swamp  hickory 361,  375 

Swamp  holly 646 

Swamp  laurel 495 

Swamp  magnolia ....   495 

Swamp  maple 429, 433 

Swamp  oak 225,  249,  301 

Swamp  poplar 669 

Swamp  sassafras 495 

Swamp  Spanish  oak 301 

Swamp  tupelo 337 

Swamp  white  oak 217,  229 

Swampy  chestnut  oak 241 

Sweet  bay  531 

Sweet  birch 565,  580 

Sweet  crab 453 

Sweet  gum 325 

Sweet  locust 541 

Sweet  magnolia 481,  495 

Sweet  scented  crab 453 

Switch-bud  hickory 367 

Sycamore 397,  607 

Table  mountain  pine 52 

Tacamahac 673 

Tamarack 79,    86 

Tanbark  oak 241,  271 

Tassajo 694 

Tear-blanket .• .  .   699 

Texan  ebony 538 

Texan  red  oak 265 

Texas  ash 411 

Texas  buckeye 649 

Texas  cottonwood 667,  669 

Texas  flowering  willow 477 

Texas  redbud 549 

Texas  umbrella-tree 465 

Thick  shellbark 369 

Thomas  elm 385 

Thorn  apple 459 

Thorn  bush  459 

Thorn  locust  541 

Thorn  plum 459 

Thorn-tree 541 

Thorny  acacia 541 

Thorny  locust 541 

Three-leaved  maple 445 

Three-thorned  acacia 541 


Index 


Thunderwood  697 

Thurber  cactus 694 

Tideland  spruce 133 

Tisswood  602 

Titi 502,526 

Toothache-tree 699 

Torch  pine 55 

Torchwood 699 

Tomillo 562 

Torrey  pine 64 

Tough  bumelia 696 

Tourney  oak  315 

Trask  mahogany 466 

Tree  huckleberry 508 

Tree  myrtle 698 

Tree  palmetto 691 

Tree  yucca 693 

Trident  oak 292 

Tuck-tuck  157 

Tulip  poplar 487 

Tuhp-tree 487 

Tupelo  337 

Turkey  oak 283,  286 

Umbrella  tree 481,  484,  526 

Upland  hickory 357 

Upland  willow 285 

Utah  juniper 706 

Valley  mahogany 466 

Valley  oak 249 

Valparaiso  oak  308 

Vauquelinia 466 

Vine  maple 441 

Virgilia 547 

Virginia  pine 55 

Virginia  thorn 460 

Wadsworth  oak 225 

Wafer  ash 699 

Wahoo 385,  399, 492, 499,  699 

Wahooehn 399 

Walnut 343 

Walnut-tree 343 

Washington  haw 460 

Washington  palm 693 

Washington  pine 193 

Washington  thorn 460 

Water  ash   422, 424,  445 

Water  beech  607 

Water  birch 577,  580 

Water  bitternut 375 

Water  elm 380 

Water  hickory 375 

Water  maple 429,  433,  435 

Water  oak 295,  319,  320 

Water  Spanish  oak 301 

Water  white  oak 217 

Weeping  dogwood 526 

Weeping  oak 249 

Weeping  spruce 136,  195 

Weeping  willow 472 

Western  birch 565,  579 

Western  black  willow 496 

Western  catalpa 476 

Western  cedar 115, 118 


Western  choke  cherry  . 

616 

Western  dogwood 

52S 

Western  hemlock  .    ... 

.      .        .   193 

Western  hemlock  fir  . 

193 

Western  hemlock  spruce 

193 

Western  juniper 

118 

85 

621 

Western  red  cedar   

.115,118,706 

Western  serviceberry.   . 

452 

Western  shellbark 

369 

Western  spruce 

133 

Western  sumach 

698 

Western  walnut 

351 

Western  white  fir 

163 

Western  white  oak  .... 

235 

Western  white  pine  . .  . 

...19,25,703 

Western  yellow  pine...  . 

67 

Western  yew 

199 

West  Indian  birch  .... 

676 

West  Indian  cherry  .  .  . 

620 

Weymouth  pme 

19 

Whiskey  cherry 

613 

Whistlewood 

637 

White  alder 

591 

White  Alaska  birch   . . . 

565,579 

White  balsam 

159, 166 

White  bark 

37 

Whitebark  maple 

436 

Whitebark  pine 

19,    37 

White  basswood 

639 

White  bay 

495 

.565,579,585 

688 

White  cedar 

..97,103,109 

White  Cottonwood 

670 

.379,385,397 

363 

White  hickory 

.357,361,367 

White  fir 

.  159, 163, 166 

White  ironwood 

700 

White  laurel 

495 

Whiteleaf  oak 

273 

535 

688 

White  maple 

433,439 

White  mulberry 

514 

White  oak 205, 208,  213,  223, 235 

White  pine 

...19,51,703 

White  poplar 

675,682 

White  spruce 

.  130, 135, 136 

White  stem  pme 

37 

White  thorn 

459 

White  titi 

502 

355,357 

White  willow 

472 

Whitewood 

.487,667,701 

Wickup 

637 

454 

Wild  black  cherry 

613 

Wild  cherry 

613,619 

Wild  china 

466 

Index 


Wild  cinnamon 701 

Wild  crab 453 

Wild  date 693 

Wild  lilac 698 

Wild  lime 699 

Wild  olive-tree 337,  601 

Wild  orange 620 

Wild  peach 620 

Wild  plum 621 

Wild  red  cherry 619 

Wild  rose  bay 507 

Wild  sapodilla 696 

Wild  tamarind 568 

Wild  thorn 459 

Williamson's  spruce 195 

Willow 469 

Willow-leaf  cherry 620 

Willow  oak 279,  295 

Wing  elm 399 

Witch  ehn 399 

Witch  hazel 328 

Wood  laurel 505 

Woolly  oak  315 

Yaupon 645 


Yaupon  holly 645 

Yellow  ash 553 

Yellow  bark  oak 271 

Yellow  basswood 637 

Yellow  birch 565,  571 

Yellow  buckeye 649 

Yellow  buckthorn 698 

Yellow-butt  oak 271 

Yellow  cedar 118,  121 

Yellow  chestnut  oak 247 

Yellow  Cottonwood 667 

Yellow  cypress 121 

Yellow  fir 163,  169 

Yellow-leaf  willow 471 

Yellow-flowered  cucumber-tree  .  .   484 

Yellow  locust 535,  553 

Yellow  oak 247,  271 

Yellow  pine 43,    63 

Yellow  plum 621 

Yellow  poplar 481,  487 

Yellow  spruce 127 

Yellow-wood 511,  553, 698, 699 

Yew 199,201 

Yucca 693 


INDEX  TO  LATIN  NAMES 


Abies  amabilis 165 

Abies  arizonica 154 

Abies  balsamea 145y 

Abies  concolor 159   ' 

Abies  fraseri 151 

Abies  grandis 163 

Abies  lasiocarpa 166 

Abies  magnifica 164 

Abies  nobilis 79,  157 

Abies  shastensis  165 

Abies  venusta 171 

Acacia  farnesiana 543 

Acacia  greggii 544 

Acacia  wrightii 544 

Acer  circinatum  441 

Acer  floridanum 435 

Acer  glabrum 442,  446 

Acer  leucoderma 436 

Acer  macrophyllum 439 

Acer  negundo  445 

Acer  negundo  californicum 447 

Acer  nigrum 447 

Acer  pennsylvanicum 447 

Acer  rubrum 433 

Acer  rubrum  drummondii 436 

Acer  saccharinum 429 

Acer  saccharum 427 

Acer  spicatum 435 

-Esculus  austrina 652 

^sculus  calif ornica 651 

-Esculus  glabra 651 

Jisculus  octandra 649 

jEscuIus  octandra  hybrida 652 

Ailanthus  glandulosa 676 

Alnus  acuminata 592 

Alnus  glutinosa 592 

Alnus  maritima 592 

Alnus  oregona 589 

Alnus  rhombifolia 591 

Alnus  rugosa 592 

Alnus  sitchensis 592 

Alnus  tennuifolia 596 

Amelanchier  alnifolia 452 

Amelanchier  canadensis 451 

Amelanchier  obovalis 452 

Amyris  maritima 699 

Andromida  ferruginea 526 

Annona  glabra 640 

Aralia  spinosa 675 

Arbutus  arizonica 663 

Arbutus  menziesii 661 

Arbutus  xalapensis 663 

Arctostaphylos  manzanita 663 

Asimina  triloba 640 

Avicennia  nitida 688 

Betula  alaskana 579 

Betula  coerulea 565,  585 

Betula  fontinalis 565,  580 


Betula  kenaica  565,  585 

Betula  lenta 565 

Betula  lutea 565,  571 

Betula  nigra 565,  577 

Betula  occidentalis 565,  579 

Betula  papyrifera 565,  583 

Betula  pendula 586 

Betula  populifolia 565, 585 

Broussonetia  papyrifera 514 

Bumelia  angustifolia 696 

Bumelia  lanuginosa 696 

Bumelia  lycoides 696 

Bumelia  tenax 696 

Bursera  simaruba 677 

Camaecyparis  lawsoniana 123 

Camsecyparis  nootkatensis 121 

Camaecyparis  thyoides 103 

Candalia  obovata 700 

Canella  winterana 701 

Canotia  holocantha 699 

Carpinus  caroliniana 627 

Castanea  dentata 631 

Castanea  pumila 634 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla 633 

Catalpa  catalpa 475,  477 

Catalpa  speciosa 475 

Celastracese  499 

Celtis  mississippiensis 403,  405 

Celtis  occidentalis 403 

Celtis  reticulata 406 

Cercidium  floridum 555 

Cercidium  torreyanum 556 

Cercis  canadensis 548 

Cercis  occidentalis 549 

Cercis  reniformis 549 

Cercocarpus  ledifolius 466 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius 466 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius  breviflorus  466 

Cercocarpus  traskiae 466 

Cereus  giganteus 693 

Cereus  schottii 694 

Cereus  thurberi 694 

Chilopsis  linearis 477 

Chionanthus  virginica 700 

Chrysobalanus  icaco 622 

Chrysophyllum  monopyrenum  . .  .   696 

Cleanothus  arboreus 698 

Cleanothus  thyrsiflorus 698 

Cledrastis  lutea 553 

Cliftonia  monophylla 502 

Columbrina  reclinata 698 

Conocarpus  erecta 688 

Cornus  alternifolia 526 

Comus  florida 523 

Cornus  florida  pendula 526 

Comus  florida  rubra 526 

Cornus  nuttallii 525 

Cotinus  cotinoides 697 


Cratafgus 457 

Crataegus  aestivalis 458 

Crataegus  brachyacantha 459 

Crataegus  coccinea 457 

Crataegus  cordata 460 

Crataegus  crus-galli 459 

Crataegus  douglasii 460 

Crataegus  oxycantha 460 

Crataegus  tomentosa 459 

Cupressus  arizonica 139,  142 

Cupressus  glabra 139,  142 

Cupressus  goveniana 139,  184 

Cupressus  macnabiana 139,  178 

Cupressus  macrocarpa 139,  141 

Cupressus  pygmaea 139, 184 

Cyrilla  racemiflora 501 

Delea  spinosa 556 

Dendropogon  usenoides 256 

Diospyros  texana 520 

Diospyros  virginiana 517 

Dipholis  salicifolia 696 

Evonymus  atropurpureus 499 

Exothea  pauiculata 700 

Eysenhardtia  orthocarpa 556 

Fagus  atropunicea 625 

Fraxinus  americana 409 

Fraxinus  anomala 412 

Fraxinus  berlandieriana 418 

Fraxinus  biltmoreana 424 

Fraxinus  caroliniana 424 

Fraxinus  cuspidata 412 

Fraxinus  floridana 424 

Fraxinus  greggii 411 

Fraxinus  lanceolata 422 

Fraxinus  nigra 415 

Fraxinus  oregona 421 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica 423 

Fraxinus  profunda 423 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata 417 

Fraxinus  texensis 411 

Fraxinus  velutina 418 

Fremontodendron  californicum  .  .   400 

Gaultheria  procumbens 566 

Gleditsia  aquatica 543 

Gleditsia  texana 543 

Gleditsia  triacanthos 541 

Guajacum  sanctum 698 

Gyminda  grisebachii 490 

Gymnanthes  lucida 701 

Gymnocladus  dioicus 547 

Hamamelis  virginiana 328 

Helietta  parvifolia 699 

Heteromeles  arbutifolia 645 

Hicoria  alba 356,  363,  364 

Hicoria  aquatica 375 

Hicoria  carolinae-septentrionalis  . .   376 

Hicoria  glabra 356,  361,  364,  367 

Hicoria  laciniosa 369 

Hicoria  minima 361,  364 

Hicoria  myristicaeformis 374 

Hicoria  odorata 346 

Hicoria  ovata 355,  356 

IScoria  texana 375 


Hicoria  villosa 

Hippomane  mancinella 

Hypelate  trifoliata 

Icacorea  paniculata 

Ichthyomethia  piscipula 

Ilex  cassine 

Ilex  cassine  angustifolia 

Ilex  decidua 

Ilex  monticola 

Ilex  myrtitolia 

Ilex  opaca 

Ilex  vomitoria 

Jaquinia  armillaris 

Juglans  californica 

Juglans  cinera 

Juglans  nigra 

Juglans  rupestris 

Juniperus  barbadensis 

Juniperus  californica 

Juniperus  communis 

Juniperus  flaccida 

Juniperus  monosperma 

Juniperus  occidentalis 

Juniperus  pachyphloea 

Juniperus  sabinoides 

Juniperus  scopulorum 

Juniperus  utahensis 

Juniperus  virginiana 

Kalmia  latifolia 505 

Khaya  senegalensis 

KcEberlinia  spinosa 

Laguncularia  racemosa 

Larix  americana 

Larix  laricina 

Larix  lyallii 

Larix  occidentalis 

Leitneria  floridana 

Leucaena  glauca 

Leucaena  pulverulenta 

Libocedrus  decurrens 

Liquidambar  styraciflua 

Liriodendron  tulipifera 

Lysiloma  latisiliqua 

Magnolia  acuminata 

Magnolia  acuminata  cordata 

Magnolia  foetida 481 

Magnolia  fraseri 

Magnolia  glauca 481 

Magnolia  macrophylla 481 

Magnolia  pyramidata 481 

Magnolia  tripetala 481 

Mains  angustifolia 

Mains  coronaria 

Mains  ioensis 

Mains  malus 

Malus  rivularis 

Malus  soulardi 

Meliaceae 

Melia  azedarach 

Melia  azedarach  umbraculifera  . .  . 

Mimusops  sieberi 

Mohrodendron  carolinum 

Mohrodendron  dipterum 


Index 


Moms  alba 514 

Morus  celtidifolia 514 

Morus  rubra 513 

Neowashingtoniana  filamentosa  . .   693 

Nyssa  aquatica 337 

Nyssa  biflora 340 

Nyssa  ogeche 337, 339 

Nyssa  sylvatica 337 

Ocotea  catesbyana 657 

Olneya  tesota 568 

Opuntia  fulgida 694 

Opuntia  sponsior 694 

Opuntia  versicolor 694 

Oreodoxa  regia 692 

Osmanthus  americanus 700 

Ostrya  knowltoni 598 

Ostrya  virginiana 595 

Oxydendron  arboreum 507 

Persea  borbonia 531 

Persea  pubescens 532 

Picea  breweriana 136 

Picea  canadensis 130 

Picea  engelmanni 135 

Picea  mariana 129 

Picea  parryana 136 

Picea  rubens 127 

Picea  sitchensis 133 

Pinus  albicaulis 19,    37 

Pinus  aristata 19,  38,    43 

Pinus  arizonica 43,  705 

Pinus  attenuata 704 

Pinus  balfouriana 19,    38 

Pinus  cembroides 19,    33 

Pinus  chihuahuana 43,    76 

Pinus  clausa 43,    46 

Pinus  contorta 43,    73 

Pinus  coulteri 43,    68 

Pinus  divaricata 43,    69 

Pinus  echinata 43,    49 

Pinus  edulis 19,    28 

Pinus  flexilis 19,  703 

Pinus  glabra 43,    51 

Pinus  heterophylla 43,    45 

Pinus  jefferi 75 

Pinus  lambertiana 19,  25,    31 

Pinus  monophylla 19,  701 

Pinus  monticola 19,    25 

Pinus  muricata 43,    69 

Pinus  palustris  43 

Pinus  ponderosa 43,    67 

Pinus  pungens 43,    52 

Pinus  quadrifolia 19,  704 

Pinus  radiata 43,    69 

Pinus  resinosa 43,    61 

Pinus  rigida 43,    63 

Pinus  sabiniana 43,    75 

Pinus  serotina 43,    57 

Pinus  strobiformis 19,    27 

Pinus  strobus 19,    25 

Pinus  taeda 43,    55 

Pinus  torreyana 43,    64 

Pinus  virginiana 43,    57 

Flanera  aquatica 397 


Platanus  occidentalis 607 

Platanus  racemosa 609 

Platanus  wrightii 610 

Populus  acuminata 667,  670 

Populus  alba 682 

Populus  angustifolia 667,  669 

Populus  balsamifera 667,  673 

Populus  balsamifera  candicans  . . .   673 

Populus  deltoides 667 

Populus  fremontii 667,  670 

Populus  grandidentata 667,  675 

Populus  heterophylla 667,  669 

Populus  mexicana 667, 669 

Populus  nigra  681 

Populus  nigra  italica 682 

Populus  tremuloides 667,  676 

Populus  trichocarpa 667,  669 

Populus  wislizeni   667,  669 

Parklnsonia  aculeata 549 

Parkinsonia  microphylla 549 

Prosopis  juliflora 559 

Prosopis  juliflora  glandulosa 562 

Prosopis  juliflora  velutina 562 

Prosopis  odorata 562 

Prunus  allegheniensis 622 

Prunus  americana 621 

Prunus  angustifolia 622 

Prunus  caroliniana 620 

Prunus  demissa 616 

Prunus  emarginata 616 

Prunus  hortulana 622 

Prunus  ilicifolia 616 

Prunus  nigra 621 

Prunus  pennsylvanica 619 

Prunus  salicifolia 620 

Prunus  serotina 613 

Prunus  spharocarpa 620 

Prunus  subcordata 621 

Prunus  umbellata 621 

Prunus  virginiana 615 

Pseudophoenix  sargentii 692 

Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa 172 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia 169 

Ptelea  trifoliata 699 

Pyrus  americana 454 

Pyrus  microcarpa 454 

Quercus  acuminata 247 

Quercus  agrifolia 307 

Quercus  alba 205 

Quercus  alvordiana 220 

Quercus  arizonica 205,  218 

Quercus  brevifolia 285 

Quercus  breviloba 208 

Quercus  breweri  205,  220 

Quercus  californica 285 

Quercus  catesbsi 259,  283 

Quercus  chapmani 208 

Quercus  chrysolepis 308 

Quercus  chrysolepis  palmeri 301 

Quercus  chrysolepis  vaccinifolia . .  309 

Quercus  coccinea - .    . .  277 

Quercus  densiflora 313 

Quercus  digitata 259,  289 


Quercus  douglasii 

Quercus  dumosa 205, 

Quercus  emoryi 205, 

Quercus  engelmanni 205, 

Quercus  gambelii 205, 

Quercus  garryana 205, 

Quercus  georgiana 259, 

Quercus  heterophylla 

Quercus  hypoleuca 259, 

Quercus  imbricaria 259, 

Quercus  laurifolia 259, 

Quercus  leana 

Quercus  lobata 205, 

Quercus  lyrata 205, 

Quercus  macrocarpa 205, 

Quercus  marilandica 259, 

Quercus  tnichauxii 205, 

Quercus  minor 223, 

Quercus  morehus 259, 

Quercus  myrtifolia 259, 

Quercus  nigra 259, 

Quercus  oblongifolia 205, 

Quercus  palustris 259, 

Quercus  phellos 259, 

Quercus  platanoides 205, 

Quercus  pricei 259, 

Quercus  prinoides 

Quercus  prinus 205, 

Quercus  pumila 259, 

Quercus  reticulatr. 205, 

Quercus  rubra 

Quercus  sadleri 205, 

Quercus  texana 259, 

Quercus  tomentella 

Quercus  toumeyi 205, 

Quercus  tridentata 

Quercus  undulata 205, 

Qurecus  velutina 259, 

Qercuus  virginiana 205, 

Quercus  wislizeni 259, 

Reynosia  latifolia 

Rhamnidium  ferreum 

Rhamnus  caroliniana 

Rhamnus  crocea 

Rhamnus  purshiana 

Rhizophora  mangle 

Rhododendron  catawbiense 

Rhododendron  maximum 

Rhus  copallina 

Rhus  hirta 

Rhus  integrifoUa 

Rhus  metopium 

Rhus  vernix 

Robinia  neomexicana 

Robinia  pseudacacia 

Robinia  viscosa 

Sabal  mexicana 

Sabal  paknetto 

Salix  alba 

SaUx  amphfolia 

Salix  amygdaloides 

Salix  babylonica 

Salix  bebbiana 


Salix  cordata  mackenzieana. 472 

Salix  discolor 472 

Salix  fluviatilis 496 

Salix  hookeriana 472 

Salix  Isevigata 471 

Salix  lasiandra 496 

Salix  lasiandra  lyalli 496 

Salix  lasiolepis 472 

Salix  longipes 471 

Salix  lucida 496 

Salix  missouriensis 472 

Salix  nigra 496 

Salix  nuttallii 472 

Salix  sessifolia 471 

Salix  sitchensis 472 

Salix  taxifolia 471 

Sambucus  callicarpa 700 

Sanbucus  glauca 700 

Sambucus  mexicana 700 

Sapindus  drummondi 465 

Sapindus  marginatus 465 

Sapindus  saponaria 465 

Sassafras  sassafras 655 

Schaefferia  frutescens 501 

Sequoia  sempervirens 181 

Sequoia  washingtoniana 175 

Sideroxylon  mastichodendron.  . . .   692 

Simarouba  glauca 676 

Sophora  affinis 555 

Sophora  secundiflora ....   554 

Svvietenia  mahagoni 463 

Taxodium  distichum 139 

Taxodium  imbricarium 139, 141 

Taxus  brevifolia 199 

Taxus  floridana 201 

Terminalia  buceras 688 

Thrinax  microcarpa 692 

Thrinax  parviflora 692 

Thuia  occidentalis 97 

Thuja  plicata 115 

Tilia  amerciana 637 

Tilia  australis 639 

Tilia  floridana 639 

Tilia  heterophylla 637,  639 

Tilia  michauxii     639 

Tilia  pubescens 639 

Toxylon  pomiferum 511 

Tsuga  canadensis 187 

Tsuga  caroliniana 187,  703 

Tsuga  heterophylla 187,  193 

Tsuga  mertensiana 187,  195 

Tumion  californicum 201 

Tumion  taxifolium 202 

Ulmus  alata 379,  399 

Ulmus  americana 379 

Ulmus  crassifolia 379,  392 

Ulmus  pubescens 379,  391 

Ulmus  racemosa 379,  385 

Ulmus  serotina 379,  393 

Umbellularia  californica 529,  655 

Vaccinium  arboreum 508 

Vauquelinia  californica .  .   466 

Viburnum  lentago 700 


Index 


XV 


Viburnum  prunifolium 699 

Viburnum  rufotomentosum 700 

Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis 699 

Xanthoxylum  cribrosum 699 

Xanthoxylum  fagara 699 

Yucca  aloifolia  693 

Yucca  arborescens 693 

Yucca  brevifolia 693 


Yucca  gloriosa 693 

Yucca  macrocarpa 693 

Yucca  mohavensis 693 

Yucca  treculeana 693 

Zygia  brevifolia 538 

Zygia  flexicaulis 538 

Zygia  unguis-cati 538 


